Name: transcription and gene control
Uploaded: 2026-08-26T08:19:32.317Z
Duration: 2 min 9 s
Channel: JoVE

K12 Standards

Tennessee Academic Standards

High School

Biology

from-molecules-to-organisms-structures-and-processes

From Molecules to Organisms: Structures and Processes

BIO1.LS1.3

Transcription

La transcription est le m&#xE9;canismede synth&#xE8;se de l&#x27;ARN depuis un mod&#xE8;le d&#x27;ADN. 
Dans le noyau, le complexe de pr&#xE9;-initiationde la transcriptions&#x27;assemble autour du site promoteur d&#x27;un g&#xE8;ne,- incluant un site de liaisondes facteurs de transcription g&#xE9;n&#xE9;raux,ici une bo&#xEE;te TATA, un site de liaisonpour l&#x27;ARN polym&#xE9;rase,et du site d&#x27;initiation de la transcription. 
Une fois que les composants n&#xE9;cessaires sont li&#xE9;s,le complexe de pr&#xE9;-initiation d&#xE9;roule une petite portionde l&#x27;ADN en amont du site d&#x27;initiation de la transcription,et l&#x27;ARN polym&#xE9;rase d&#xE9;bute la productiond&#x27;un nouveau brin d&#x27;ARNm. 
Les nucl&#xE9;otides sont ajout&#xE9;s un par unet la synth&#xE8;se de l&#x27;ARNm a lieu en partantde l&#x27;extr&#xE9;mit&#xE9; 5&#x27; vers la 3&#x27; du brin mod&#xE8;le. 
Le nouveau brin d&#x27;ARNm cr&#xE9;&#xE9;repr&#xE9;sente une copie de l&#x27;information du brin codant,sauf que les thymidines sont remplac&#xE9;es par les uraciles. 
La synth&#xE8;se continuera jusqu&#x27;&#xE0; arriver &#xE0;la s&#xE9;quence de terminaison, ce qui lib&#xE9;rera le nouvel ARNmpour permettre un nouveau traitement.

1. Lee, Hyun-Kyung, Hyun-Shik Lee et Sally A. Moody. « Facteurs de transcription neurales : de l’embryon aux cellules souches neurales. » Molécules et cellules 37 10 (2014) : 705-12. [<a href="https://doi.org/10.14348/molcells.2014.0227">Source</a>]

transcription

<h4>Aper&#xE7;u</h4>
 
 La transcription est le processus de synth&#xE8;se de l&#x2019;ARN &#xE0; partir d&#x2019;une s&#xE9;quence d&#x2019;ADN par l&#x2019;ARN polym&#xE9;rase. C&#x2019;est la premi&#xE8;re &#xE9;tape dans la production d&#x2019;une prot&#xE9;ine &#xE0; partir d&#x2019;une s&#xE9;quence de g&#xE8;nes. En outre, beaucoup d&#x2019;autres prot&#xE9;ines et s&#xE9;quences de r&#xE9;gulation sont impliqu&#xE9;es dans la synth&#xE8;se appropri&#xE9;e de l&#x2019;ARN messager (ARNm). La r&#xE9;gulation de la transcription est responsable de la diff&#xE9;renciation de tous les diff&#xE9;rents types de cellules et souvent de la r&#xE9;ponse cellulaire appropri&#xE9;e aux signaux environnementaux.
 
 <h4>La transcription peut produire diff&#xE9;rents types de mol&#xE9;cules d&#x2019;ARN</h4>
 
 Chez les eucaryotes, l&#x2019;ADN est d&#x2019;abord transcrit dans un ARN primaire, ou pr&#xE9;-ARNm, qui peut &#xEA;tre transform&#xE9; en ARNm mature pour servir de mod&#xE8;le &#xE0; la synth&#xE8;se des prot&#xE9;ines. Dans les procaryotes tels que les bact&#xE9;ries, cependant, la traduction de l&#x2019;ARN en polypeptides peut commencer pendant que la transcription est toujours en cours, puisque l&#x2019;ARN peut &#xEA;tre rapidement d&#xE9;grad&#xE9;. La transcription peut &#xE9;galement produire diff&#xE9;rentes sortes de mol&#xE9;cules d&#x2019;ARN qui ne codent pas pour des prot&#xE9;ines, telles que les microARN, l&#x2019;ARN de transfert (ARNt) et l&#x2019;ARN ribosomal (ARNr), qui contribuent tous &#xE0; la synth&#xE8;se des prot&#xE9;ines. 
 
 <h4>La r&#xE9;gulation de la transcription est au c&#x153;ur du d&#xE9;veloppement</h4>
 
 &#xC0; quelques exceptions pr&#xE8;s, toutes les cellules du corps humain contiennent les m&#xEA;mes informations g&#xE9;n&#xE9;tiques, allant des neurones du cerveau aux cellules musculaires du c&#x153;ur. Alors, comment les cellules assument-elles des formes et des fonctions aussi diverses ? Dans une large mesure, la r&#xE9;ponse r&#xE9;side dans la r&#xE9;gulation de la transcription pendant le d&#xE9;veloppement de l&#x2019;organisme. Plus pr&#xE9;cis&#xE9;ment, la r&#xE9;gulation transcriptionnelle joue un r&#xF4;le central dans la diff&#xE9;renciation cellulaire &#x2014; le processus de production de cellules sp&#xE9;cialis&#xE9;es, telles que les cellules musculaires, &#xE0; partir de cellules pr&#xE9;curseurs moins sp&#xE9;cialis&#xE9;es. Pour produire des cellules sp&#xE9;cialis&#xE9;es, certains g&#xE8;nes doivent &#xEA;tre allum&#xE9;s et d&#x2019;autres &#xE9;teints dans les cellules pr&#xE9;curseurs.
 
 Ce processus de diff&#xE9;renciation cellulaire est orchestr&#xE9; par des prot&#xE9;ines liant l&#x2019;ADN appel&#xE9;es facteurs de transcription qui contr&#xF4;lent le niveau de transcription des g&#xE8;nes pouvant d&#xE9;terminer le destin cellulaire. Par exemple, &#xE0; un stade pr&#xE9;coce pendant le d&#xE9;veloppement des vert&#xE9;br&#xE9;s, les cellules de la couche d&#x2019;ectoderme de l&#x2019;embryon en d&#xE9;veloppement re&#xE7;oivent plusieurs signaux d&#x2019;induction de prot&#xE9;ines telles que BMP, WNT et SHH. Ces signaux activent les facteurs de transcription qui allument ou &#xE9;teignent un groupe de g&#xE8;nes. De cette fa&#xE7;on, la r&#xE9;gulation transcriptionnelle d&#xE9;termine si les cellules ectodermiques deviennent des cellules cutan&#xE9;es ou des cellules du syst&#xE8;me nerveux.
 
 <h4>R&#xE9;pondre &#xE0; l&#x2019;environnement n&#xE9;cessite souvent des changements transcriptionnels</h4>
 
 Les environnements sont rarement stables pendant de longues p&#xE9;riodes. Prenons, par exemple, les changements de temp&#xE9;rature, de pr&#xE9;cipitations et de disponibilit&#xE9; alimentaire auxquels une plante est expos&#xE9;e d&#x2019;un jour &#xE0; l&#x2019;autre, et parfois d&#x2019;une heure &#xE0; l&#x2019;autre. Pour fonctionner correctement, les organismes individuels doivent r&#xE9;agir &#xE0; ces changements environnementaux en ajustant des traits cl&#xE9;s, tels que leurs taux de croissance, leur immunit&#xE9; ou leur comportement. Ces ajustements n&#xE9;cessitent souvent d&#x2019;augmenter ou de diminuer le niveau de transcription d&#x2019;un grand nombre de g&#xE8;nes. Par exemple, lorsqu&#x2019;elles sont expos&#xE9;es &#xE0; des conditions de s&#xE9;cheresse, les plantes Arabidopsis thaliana ajustent rapidement la transcription de centaines de g&#xE8;nes afin d&#x2019;augmenter la croissance des racines et donc de r&#xE9;cup&#xE9;rer autant d&#x2019;eau que possible &#xE0; partir du sol.

Overview
Transcription is the process of synthesizing RNA from a DNA sequence by RNA polymerase. It is the first step in producing a protein from a gene ...

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Biologie

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DNA Structure and Function

Structure et fonction de l'ADN

KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS

TERMES ET CONCEPTS CLÉS

transcription and gene control

Transcription and gene control explain how cells make RNA from DNA and decide which genes are active. RNA polymerase copies a DNA sequence into RNA, and this is the first step in making a protein from a gene. Many other proteins and control sequences help make messenger RNA, or mRNA, correctly.

In eukaryotes, the DNA is first copied into a primary RNA, also called pre-mRNA. This RNA can then be processed into mature mRNA, which serves as the template for protein synthesis. In prokaryotes such as bacteria, translation can begin while transcription is still happening. In these cells, RNA can also break down quickly.

Transcription does not only produce mRNA. It can also make noncoding RNA molecules such as microRNAs, transfer RNA, or tRNA, and ribosomal RNA, or rRNA. These RNAs do not code for protein, but they still support protein synthesis.

Control of transcription is also central to development and cell specialization. Most cells in the human body carry the same genetic information, yet neurons and muscle cells look and act very differently. That difference comes from cellular differentiation, the process of making specialized cells from less specialized precursor cells. Some genes must be turned on, and others must be turned off, for this to happen. DNA-binding proteins called transcription factors help control the transcription levels of genes that influence cell fate.

Early in vertebrate development, ectoderm cells in the embryo receive induction signals from proteins such as BMP, WNT, and SHH. These signals activate transcription factors that change gene activity. In this way, transcriptional regulation helps decide whether ectoderm cells become skin cells or cells of the nervous system.

Cells also change transcription to respond to their environment. Temperature, precipitation, and food availability can shift from day to day, and organisms must adjust growth, immunity, or behavior. These changes often require large shifts in gene transcription. For example, Arabidopsis thaliana plants exposed to drought quickly adjust the transcription of hundreds of genes to increase root growth and take up more water from the soil.

Transcription and Gene Control

the dna helix

How DNA Stores Genetic Information

DNA stores genetic information that is passed from one generation to the next in organisms and most viruses. It is built from two strands of nucleotides that twist together into a double helix. The story of how scientists uncovered this structure developed step by step over nearly a century. Each DNA strand is made of nucleotides. A nucleotide contains the sugar deoxyribose, a phosphate group, and one of four nitrogen bases: adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), or thymine (T). Adenine and...

dna packaging

Chromatin and Histones in DNA Packing

Eukaryotic cells must pack long DNA molecules into the nucleus, and chromatin makes that possible. DNA wraps around proteins called histones to form nucleosomes, which are the main unit of DNA packaging. Nucleosomes then coil into compact chromatin fibers. The amount of DNA in a cell is much larger than it first seems. A single human skin cell has about 3 billion base pairs of DNA, and if that DNA were stretched out in a line, it would be about 2 meters long. With about 50 trillion cells in...

organization of genes

Genes, Introns, and Regulatory DNA

Eukaryotic genes are arranged within DNA along with non-coding regions that help control gene activity. A DNA strand includes genes and intergenic regions, which are the stretches between genes. These regions do not code for proteins, but they can contain important regulatory elements such as promoters, enhancers, and silencers. A gene itself is not a single continuous coding block. It usually contains protein-coding exons and non-coding introns. After DNA is transcribed into pre-mRNA in the...

karyotyping

Chromosome Stains for Detecting Disorders

Chromosome staining helps scientists find genetic disorders by showing the number and physical features of chromosomes. These features appear after DNA condenses into chromosomes during mitosis. Cytogeneticists then stop mitosis and stain the chromosomes to study their banding pattern. The pattern reveals details such as chromosome number, shape, and type. A chromosome description like this is called a karyotype. To create one, scientists take an image of the stained chromosomes and identify...

replication in prokaryotes

How Prokaryotic DNA Is Copied

Prokaryotic DNA is copied through a coordinated process with three main stages: initiation, elongation, and termination. It begins when initiator proteins bind to the single origin of replication, or ori, on the cell’s circular chromosome. The DNA then copies around the circle in both directions, starting from two replication forks, and this produces two DNA molecules. Several proteins work together to open and protect the DNA during replication. Topoisomerase cuts one side of the...

replication in eukaryotes

Eukaryotic DNA Copying and Telomeres

Eukaryotic DNA copying is tightly regulated and must duplicate many linear chromosomes before cell division. The process is highly conserved and uses many proteins with specialized roles. It moves through initiation, elongation, and termination, and it ends with two complete sets of chromosomes in the nucleus. Eukaryotic replication shares basic steps with prokaryotic DNA replication, but the larger genome and linear chromosomes require more proteins. Replication begins at multiple origins of...

proofreading

DNA Polymerase Fixes Replication Errors

DNA polymerase helps copy DNA and fix mistakes during replication. It adds nucleotides in a sequence that matches the template DNA strand. The enzyme also has a higher affinity for the correct base, which helps keep DNA replication accurate. As new genomic DNA is made, it is synthesized in the 5’ to 3’ direction. In many cells, DNA polymerases have different jobs in this process. DNA polymerase delta and DNA polymerase epsilon can proofread when nuclear DNA is being copied. These polymerases...

mismatch repair

DNA Mismatch Repair in Replication

DNA mismatch repair fixes copying errors that happen during DNA replication. When DNA polymerase makes a mistake, the cell can detect a wrong base pair, such as A with G or T with C, and replace it with the correct nucleotide. This repair system works in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes and depends on several proteins. The Mutator protein family plays a central role in this process. In bacteria such as Escherichia coli, MutS first binds the mismatch. MutL then helps identify which strand is the...

nucleotide excision repair

DNA Damage Repair by Excision

DNA damage repair by excision protects cells from mutagens that can change DNA. Exposure to environmental mutagens can create bulky lesions that bend the double helix or block transcription. If these changes are not repaired, they can lead to mutations and may contribute to cancer or disease, depending on which DNA sequences are affected. Nucleotide excision repair, or NER, is the process that detects and removes this kind of damage. Specialized proteins scan the DNA for a damaged region, then...

mutations

DNA Changes From Point Mutations to UV Damage

Mutations are changes in the DNA sequence. They can happen by chance during DNA copying, or they can be caused by environmental factors such as radiation and chemicals. Scientists also describe mutations by how much DNA they affect, how they change a protein, and whether they happen in body cells or germline cells. Some mutations affect only one nucleotide, which is a point mutation. When a point mutation falls inside a gene, the outcome depends on how the amino acid sequence changes. A silent...

Transcription and gene control explain how cells make RNA from DNA and decide which genes are active. RNA polymerase copies a DNA sequence into RNA, and this is the first step in making a protein from a gene. Many other proteins and control sequences help make messenger RNA, or mRNA, correctly. In eukaryotes, the DNA is first copied into a primary RNA, also called pre-mRNA. This RNA can then be processed into mature mRNA, which serves as the template for protein synthesis. In prokaryotes such...

translation

Protein Synthesis and mRNA Decoding

Protein synthesis begins when ribosomes decode messenger RNA (mRNA) and build a chain of amino acids. This final step of gene expression is called translation. The finished chain is a polypeptide, which can later become a functional protein. Proteins are often called the building blocks of life because they make up much of the body, from muscle fibers to hairs and immune system parts. The instructions for each protein are encoded in genes found in the DNA of every cell. In biology, the central...

bacterial transformation

Griffith’s Mouse Experiment and DNA

Bacterial transformation explains how DNA can move into bacteria and change their traits. Frederick Griffith first noticed this in 1928 while studying pneumonia-causing Streptococcus pneumoniae in mice. He compared one pathogenic strain with one non-pathogenic strain and found that only the pathogenic strain killed the host mice. Griffith made an unexpected discovery when he killed the pathogenic bacteria and mixed their remains with live, non-pathogenic bacteria. The mixture killed the mice,...

key terms and concepts

Explore how transcription makes RNA from DNA, supports mRNA and other RNAs, and helps cells develop and respond to environmental change.

Transcription and Gene Control | JoVE K12

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Virginia  Standards of Learning

HIgh School

Life Science

LS.10

LS.10.a

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HS-LS1-1

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HS+B.L3U1.11

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BIO.7

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Characteristics of Life

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the-tree-of-life-bacteria-archaea-and-eukaryotes

The Tree of Life - Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukaryotes

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Prokaryotes are small unicellular organisms that include the domains &#8212; Archaea and Bacteria. Bacteria include many common microorganisms, such as ...

Introduction to Virus

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Size and Structure of Viral Genomes

Viral genomes exhibit remarkable diversity in size, structure, and composition, influencing their replication strategies and interactions with host cells. ...

Compare and contrast existing models, identify patterns, and use structural and functional evidence to analyze the characteristics of life. Engage in argument about the designation of viruses as non-living based on these characteristics.
EXPLANATION: Students begin to develop patterns of living and non-living organisms in kindergarten and build on detailed characteristics of different classifications of living organisms throughout elementary and middle school. Biology 1 discussions introduce viral particles and viral cycles, building on student understanding of living organisms to engage in an argument regarding the classification of a viral particle as either living or non-living.

BIO1.LS1.1

What are Cells?

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Eukaryotic Compartmentalization

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Eukaryotic Evolution

The endosymbiont theory is the most widely accepted theory of eukaryotic evolution; however, its progression is still somewhat debated. According to the ...

Animal and Plant Cell Structure

Animal and plant cells not only differ in their structure, function, and mode of nutrition but also in how they reproduce, specialize, and organize into ...

Evaluate comparative models of various cell types with a focus on organic molecules that make up cellular structures.
EXPLANATION: Students explicitly discuss the structure and function of major cellular organelles in seventh grade. Building on this understanding, Biology I students should shift their focus to the different types of cells found in organisms and how the role of each cell type relates to its composition and the prevalence of different organelles within that cell. An example might include the absence (or enucleation) of the nucleus in red blood cells in mammals providing for increased levels of oxygen transport in organisms or the lack of centrioles in most neurons. Varying cell types can include both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell types.

BIO1.LS1.2

Nucleic Acids

Nucleic acids are the most important macromolecules for the continuity of life. They carry the cell&#39;s genetic blueprint and carry instructions for its ...

The DNA Helix

Deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA, is the genetic material responsible for passing traits from generation to generation in all organisms and most viruses. DNA ...

DNA Base Pairing

Erwin Chargaff&#x2019;s rules on DNA equivalence paved the way for the discovery of base pairing in DNA. Chargaff&#x2019;s rules state that in a ...

The Central Dogma

The central dogma explains the flow of genetic information from DNA nucleotides to the amino acid sequence of proteins.
RNA is the Missing Link Between ...

DNA Packaging

Overview

Eukaryotes have large genomes compared to prokaryotes. In order to fit their genomes into a cell, eukaryotes must pack their DNA tightly inside ...

Organization of Genes

Overview

The genomes of eukaryotes can be structured in several functional categories. A strand of DNA is comprised of genes and intergenic regions. ...

Karyotyping

Describing the number and physical features of chromosomes can reveal abnormalities that underlie genetic diseases. This description is facilitated by ...

Replication in Prokaryotes

Overview

DNA replication has three main steps: initiation, elongation, and termination. Replication in prokaryotes begins when initiator proteins bind to ...

Replication in Eukaryotes

Overview

In eukaryotic cells, DNA replication is highly conserved and tightly regulated. Multiple linear chromosomes must be duplicated with high ...

Mutations

Overview

Mutations are changes in the sequence of DNA. These changes can occur spontaneously or they can be induced by exposure to environmental factors. ...

Translation

Lesson: Translation
Translation is the process of synthesizing proteins from the genetic information carried by messenger RNA (mRNA). Following ...

RNA Structure

Overview
The basic structure of RNA consists of a five-carbon sugar and one of four nitrogenous bases. Although most RNA is single-stranded, it can form ...

RNA Stability

Intact DNA strands can be found in fossils, while scientists sometimes struggle to keep RNA intact under laboratory conditions. The structural variations ...

pre-mRNA Processing

In eukaryotic cells, transcripts made by RNA polymerase are modified and processed before exiting the nucleus. Unprocessed RNA is called precursor mRNA or ...

Types of RNA

Overview
Three main types of RNA are involved in protein synthesis: messenger RNA (mRNA), transfer RNA (tRNA), and ribosomal RNA (rRNA). These RNAs ...

MicroRNAs

siRNA - Small Interfering RNAs

Small interfering RNAs, or siRNAs, are short regulatory RNA molecules that can silence genes post-transcriptionally, as well as the transcriptional ...

piRNA - Piwi-interacting RNAs

PIWI-interacting RNAs, or piRNAs, are the most abundant short non-coding RNAs. More than 20,000 genes have been found in humans that code for piRNAs while ...

CRISPR and crRNAs

Bacteria and archaea are susceptible to viral infections just like eukaryotes; therefore, they have developed a unique adaptive immune system to protect ...

lncRNA - Long Non-coding RNAs

In humans, more than 80% of the genome gets transcribed. However, only around 2% of the genome codes for proteins. The remaining part produces non-coding ...

What are Proteins?

Protein Organization

Protein Folding

Protein Families

Protein families are groups of homologous proteins; that is, they have similarities in amino acid sequences and three-dimensional structures. Protein ...

conservation-of-protein-domains-over-different-proteins

Conservation of Protein Domains Over Different Proteins

Protein domains are small structurally independent units that are part of a single amino acid chain.&#160; Although these domains are often structurally ...

Globular and Fibrous Proteins

Many proteins can be classified into two distinct subtypes - globular or fibrous. These two types differ in their shapes and solubilities.
Globular ...

Intrinsically Disordered Proteins

Intrinsically disordered proteins are a group of proteins that do not fold into specific three-dimensional structures. Their structural flexibility allows ...

Protein Complex Assembly

Proteins can form homomeric complexes with another unit of the same protein or heteromeric complexes with different types.&#160; Most protein complexes ...

Conjugated Proteins

Simple proteins and protein complexes contain only amino acids. In contrast, many other proteins, called conjugated proteins, covalently bond with ...

Allosteric Proteins-ATCase

Binding sites linkages can regulate a protein&#39;s function.&#160; For example, enzyme activity is often regulated through a feedback mechanism where the ...

Amyloid Fibrils

Amyloid fibrils are aggregates of misfolded proteins.&#160; Under most circumstances, misfolded proteins are either refolded by chaperone proteins or ...

Cooperative Allosteric Transitions

Cooperative allosteric transitions can occur in multimeric proteins, where each subunit of the protein has its own ligand-binding site. When a ligand ...

Antibody Structure

Phosphorylation

Ligand Binding Sites

Proteins are dynamic macromolecules that carry out a wide variety of essential processes; however, the activities of most proteins depend on their ...

Protein Kinases and Phosphatases

Proteins undergo chemical modifications that trigger changes in the charge, structure, and conformation of the proteins. Phosphorylation, acetylation, ...

Protein-protein Interfaces

Many proteins form complexes to carry out their functions, making protein-protein interactions (PPIs) essential for an organism&#39;s survival. Most PPIs ...

GTPases and their Regulation

Guanine nucleotide-binding proteins (G-proteins), also known as GTPases, are a superfamily of proteins that regulate many cellular processes, such as cell ...

Conserved Binding Sites

Many proteins&#8217; biological role depends on their interactions with their ligands, small molecules that bind to specific locations on the protein ...

Covalently Linked Protein Regulators

Proteins can undergo many types of post-translational modifications, often in response to changes in their environment. These modifications play an ...

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The Equilibrium Binding Constant and Binding Strength

The equilibrium binding constant (Kb) quantifies the strength of a protein-ligand interaction. Kb can be calculated as follows when the reaction is at ...

protein-complexes-with-interchangeable-parts

Protein Complexes with Interchangeable Parts

Groups of proteins may form a complex where each protein in this complex has a different role in the overall execution of the complex&#8217;s function. ...

Cofactors and Coenzymes

Mechanical Protein Functions

Proteins perform many mechanical functions in a cell. These proteins can be classified into two general categories- proteins that generate mechanical ...

Allosteric Regulation

Structural Protein Function

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Ligand Binding and Linkage

Allosteric proteins have more than one ligand binding site; the binding of a ligand to any of these sites influences the binding of ligands to the other ...

Protein Networks

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Integrate evidence to develop a structural model of a DNA molecule. Using the model, develop and communicate an explanation for how DNA serves as a template for self-replication and encodes biological information.
EXPLANATION: Discussions of DNA in earlier grades have been limited to discussions of genes and the role of genes in the appearance and activities of an organism. Biology 1 represents a student's introduction to a molecular model of a DNA as well as the organization of DNA into genes and genes subsequently into chromosomes. Students should address interactions between genes in proteins which regulate both the shape and reproduction of DNA molecules. It is important to note that not all segments of DNA are transcribed for proteins. Portions of DNA are involved in regulating the expression of genes or affect the structure of the chromosomes (replication origin, centromeres, and telomeres).

Transcription and Gene Control

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