Name: membrane sugars and cell identity
Uploaded: 2023-04-30T09:15:48.000Z
Duration: 1 min 30 s
Channel: JoVE

K12 Standards

Alabama Course of Study Science

9-12

Biology

from-molecules-to-organisms-structures-and-processes

From Molecules to Organisms: Structures and Processes

9-12.B.1.4.a

Membrane Carbohydrates

אחרי שומנים וחלבונים, פחמימות הן המרכיב העיקרי השלישי של הממברנות הביולוגיות.
גליקופרוטאינים, חלבונים עם פחמימות קשורות, מהווים כמעט תשעים אחוז מפחמימות הממברנה. גליקוליפידים הם עשרת האחוזים הנותרים.
הן הגליקופרוטאינים והן הגליקוליפידים נמצאים בצד החיצוני של הממברנה ומבצעים תפקידים מגוונים, כולל מתפקדים כאנטיגנים וקולטנים.
פחמימות מחוברות לחלבונים באמצעות קשרים N-glycosidic ו- O-glycosidic.
היווצרות קשר N-גליקוזידי מתרחשת בין קבוצת אמיד של אספרגין לבין סוכר כגון N-אצטילגלוקוזאמין, ואילו קשרים O-גליקוזידים נוצרים בין קבוצת הידרוקסיל של סרין או תראונין לבין סוכר, כגון N-אצטילגלקטוזאמין.
פחמימות קשורות מגינות על חלבונים מפני פרוטאזות, משנות את המטען הכולל שלהן ומגדילות את יכולת קשירת המים שלהן.
גליקוליפידים מופקים מסרמיד– ספינגולפיד. Glucocerebroside או galactocerebroside מסונתז כאשר גלוקוז או גלקטוז נקשר ceramide.
גנגליוזידים נוצרים כאשר אוליגוסכריד וחומצה סיאלית נקשרים לסרמיד. הגנגליוזידים הטעונים שלילית מווסתים את ריכוז יוני הסידן הטעונים חיובית, ובכך מסייעים בהולכה עצבית.

פחמימות הממברנה

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ממברנת הפלזמה היא מחסום דינמי המורכב מליפידים, חלבונים ופחמימות. זהו המוקד של תהליכים תאיים רבים הנדרשים לצמיחתם ולהישרדותם של התאים. לפחמימות יש תכונות מבניות וכימיות ייחודיות המסייעות לממברנת הפלזמה לבצע את תפקידיה ביעילות.

לפחמימות הממברנה אין איזור הידרופובי והן ממוקמות באופן בלעדי על פני השטח החיצוניים של התא. הוספה של מולקולות סוכר או גליקוזילציה של חלבונים מתרחשת בלומנס של הרשת האנדופלזמית וגם במנגנון גולג'י, ואילו גליקוזילציה של ליפידים מתרחשת רק בלומן של מנגנון גולג'י. לכן, כאשר השלפוחיות יוצאות ממנגנון גולג'י, הגליקוליפידים והגליקופרוטאינים נמצאים בשכבה הפנימית. עם זאת, כאשר השלפוחיות מתמזגות עם ממברנת הפלזמה, השכבה הפנימית והגליקוליפידים והגליקופרוטאינים הקשורים נחשפים לצד האקסופלזמי; הסיבה לכך שגליקופרוטאינים וגליקוליפידים נמצאים אך ורק בשכבה החיצונית. כמה תאים אוקריוטיים וחיידקים מפרישים כמות גדולה של פחמימה מחוץ לתא, ויוצרים מעטפת סוכר סביב התא, המכונה גליקוקליקס.

פחמימות מגוונות יותר מבחינה מבנית מחלבונים ו-DNA. בחלבונים וב-DNA, נצפים בעיקר קשרים קוולנטיים של פפטיד ופוספודיסטר, בהתאמה. לעומת זאת, כל מולקולת סוכר יכולה ליצור מספר סוגים של קשרים קוולנטיים ומאפשרת יצירת מבנים שונים של אוליגוסכרידים מאותן מולקולות סוכר. המגוון המבני של הפחמימות עוזר לספק לכל סוג תא זהות ברורה וממלא תפקיד חיוני בתפקודים תאיים מגוונים. לדוגמה, בהתאם לאנטיגן הקיים על פני תאי הדם האדומים האנושיים (RBC), קבוצת הדם מסווגת לארבעת הסוגים - A, B, AB ו-O. לאדם עם קבוצת הדם A יש את האנטיגן A הקיים על RBC שלהם ונושא נוגדנים לאנטיגן B. לאדם עם קבוצת דם B יש את האנטיגן B על RBC שלו והוא נושא נוגדנים לאנטיגן A. לאדם עם קבוצת הדם AB יש גם את האנטיגנים A וגם B על ה-RBC שלו ואין לו נוגדנים לאף אחד מהאנטיגנים. מצד שני, ל-RBC של אדם עם קבוצת דם O אין אנטיגנים A או B, ואדם זה נושא נוגדנים עבור שניהם.

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קרום הפלזמה הוא מחסום דינמי המורכב משומנים, חלבונים ופחמימות. זהו המוקד של תהליכים תאיים רבים הדרושים לתא ...

Education

JoVE Core

Cell Biology

ביולוגיה של התא

Unit 1

יחידה 1

Membrane Structure and Components

מבנה הקרום ומרכיביו

KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS

מונחים ומושגים מרכזיים

membrane sugars and cell identity

Membrane carbohydrates help give cells their surface identity and support plasma membrane function. The plasma membrane is a dynamic barrier made of lipids, proteins, and carbohydrates. These sugar chains have unique structural and chemical traits that help the membrane work properly for cell growth and survival.

Membrane carbohydrates do not have a hydrophobic region, so they are found only on the outer surface of the cell. Sugar addition, or glycosylation, of proteins occurs in the lumens of the endoplasmic reticulum and the Golgi apparatus. Glycosylation of lipids occurs only in the lumen of the Golgi apparatus.

When vesicles bud from the Golgi apparatus, glycolipids and glycoproteins are on the inner layer. After these vesicles fuse with the plasma membrane, that inner layer faces the outside of the cell. This is why glycolipids and glycoproteins are found only on the exoplasmic side.

Some eukaryotic and bacterial cells also release large amounts of carbohydrate outside the cell. This forms a sugar coat called the glycocalyx. Carbohydrates are more structurally diverse than proteins and DNA because each sugar molecule can form multiple kinds of covalent bonds. That allows many different oligosaccharide structures to form from the same sugars.

This diversity helps each cell type have a distinct identity and supports many cellular functions. A clear example is human red blood cell antigens, which determine blood groups A, B, AB, and O. Type A blood has A antigen and anti-B antibodies, type B has B antigen and anti-A antibodies, type AB has both antigens and no antibodies against them, and type O has neither antigen but carries antibodies to both.

Membrane Sugars and Cell Identity

what are membranes?

Membrane Receptors and Cell Signals

The plasma membrane sets the outer boundary of a cell and helps control how the cell interacts with its environment. It lets some substances enter, keeps others out, and releases some materials in controlled amounts. The membrane also needs to stay flexible so cells such as red and white blood cells can change shape as they move through narrow capillaries. The membrane surface also carries markers that help cells recognize one another. This recognition is important during early development,...

membrane fluidity

How Cell Membranes Stay Flexible

Cell membranes stay flexible because of the fluid mosaic model. The plasma membrane is a mosaic of phospholipids, cholesterol, proteins, and carbohydrates. These parts are separate but loosely attached, so the membrane keeps a fluid character. The membrane is still fairly rigid, but it can flow and self-seal after a very fine needle passes through it. Phospholipid tails also affect membrane fluidity. Saturated fatty acids in phospholipids have straight tails because they are packed with...

fluid mosaic model

Fluid Mosaic Model of the Membrane

The fluid mosaic model explains the structure and function of the plasma membrane. Scientists first identified the plasma membrane in the 1890s, and by 1915 they had identified its main chemical parts: lipids and proteins. Early electron micrographs showed a railroad track pattern, which helped lead to the first widely accepted membrane model in 1935.

membrane lipids

Membrane Lipids in Cells and Tissues

Membrane lipids give biological membranes their structure and help set their properties. In mammalian cells, lipids make up about 50% of the membrane on average. The amount can be much lower in the inner mitochondrial membrane or much higher in the myelin sheath around nerve cells. Several phospholipids are common in mammalian membranes. These include phosphatidylcholine, phosphatidylethanolamine, phosphatidylserine, and sphingomyelin. At physiological pH, phosphatidylserine carries a negative...

asymmetric lipid bilayer

Membrane Lipid Unevenness

Biological membranes have an uneven mix of lipids between the inner and outer layers. This membrane asymmetry gives each side a different chemical makeup and supports different cell functions. Evidence for this uneven layout came from treating an erythrocyte membrane with phospholipase. Phospholipase is an enzyme that breaks lipids into fatty acids and hydrophilic groups. It acted only on the outer layer, while the inner layer stayed intact. The treatment degraded about 80% of total membrane...

membrane asymmetry regulating transporters

membrane-asymmetry-regulating-transporters

Membrane Lipid Flipping and Transport

Membrane lipid flipping and transport help cells keep an uneven, or asymmetric, distribution of phospholipids across the membrane. This balance is controlled by flippase, floppase, and scramblase enzymes, which move lipids between the two membrane leaflets. Flippases move specific phospholipids from the outer leaflet to the inner leaflet. In eukaryotes, these enzymes are type-IV P-type ATPases, also called P4-ATPases. They are membrane pumps that use ATP and contain one transmembrane domain...

membrane carbohydrates

Membrane carbohydrates help give cells their surface identity and support plasma membrane function. The plasma membrane is a dynamic barrier made of lipids, proteins, and carbohydrates. These sugar chains have unique structural and chemical traits that help the membrane work properly for cell growth and survival. Membrane carbohydrates do not have a hydrophobic region, so they are found only on the outer surface of the cell. Sugar addition, or glycosylation, of proteins occurs in the lumens of...

membrane proteins

Facilitated Transport Across Cell Membranes

Facilitated transport uses membrane proteins to help materials cross the plasma membrane. These integral transmembrane proteins act as channels or carriers. They move selected substances through the membrane more easily than the lipid layer alone would allow. Channel proteins provide a hydrophilic, or water-friendly, path through the membrane. Their core forms a hydrated opening that lets solutes pass between the inside and outside fluids of the cell. This helps polar compounds avoid the...

lipids as anchors

Lipid Anchors in Membrane Proteins

Lipid anchors help attach proteins to the plasma membrane. In eukaryotic cells, the main lipid anchors are prenyl groups, fatty acyl groups, and glycosylphosphatidylinositol, or GPI, groups. Prenyl and fatty acyl groups anchor proteins on the cytosolic side of the membrane. GPI anchors proteins on the extracellular side. Prenylated proteins often have a CaaX motif at the carboxy terminus. In this sequence, C means cysteine, a means any aliphatic amino acid, and X means any other amino acid...

single-pass transmembrane proteins

How Membrane Proteins Span Cell Membranes

Membrane proteins help cells communicate, send signals, stick to other cells, and move molecules across the membrane. Integral membrane proteins are tightly linked to the cell membrane and carry out these jobs. Some integral membrane proteins sit only in one membrane layer. Fatty acid amide hydrolase is one example, and it is found on the cytoplasmic side of the membrane monolayer. Other integral membrane proteins are transmembrane proteins, which span across the membrane. These proteins have...

multi-pass transmembrane proteins and &#946;-barrels

multi-pass-transmembrane-proteins-and-barrels

Membrane-Spanning Helices and β-Barrels

Membrane-spanning proteins can cross the cell membrane more than once. Their transmembrane chain usually folds into either an alpha-helix or a beta-strand. Alpha-helix multi-pass proteins are common, while beta-strand proteins are found mainly in gram-negative bacteria, mitochondria, and chloroplasts. Some multi-pass alpha-helix proteins are G-protein-linked receptors, or GPCRs, and bacteriorhodopsin. GPCRs have seven transmembrane alpha-helices. Each receptor also has its own extracellular...

detergent purification of membrane proteins

detergent-purification-of-membrane-proteins

How Detergents Solubilize Membrane Proteins

Detergents help solubilize membrane proteins so they can be purified from the lipid bilayer. Their hydrophobic region can replace membrane phospholipids and keep integral membrane proteins in solution. A detergent works well only when its monomers reach the critical micelle concentration, or CMC. At that point, the molecules assemble into micelles, which are small clusters of detergent. Above the CMC, free detergent monomers stay in equilibrium with the micelles. The CMC varies with the...

protein diffusion in the membrane

How Membrane Proteins Move Side to Side

Membrane proteins can move across the cell surface by lateral diffusion, and they can also rotate in place. Scientists confirmed lateral movement with a cell fusion experiment. Mouse and human cells were fused to make hybrid cells. The membrane proteins on the two cells were tagged with red and green fluorescent markers. At first, each color stayed on its own side of the fused cell. After 40 minutes, the colors mixed across the whole cell surface, showing that the proteins had moved laterally. <br...

membrane domains

Lipid Rafts and Sperm Membrane Regions

Membrane domains organize specific lipids and proteins in defined parts of a cell membrane. This arrangement supports cell signaling, adhesion, and other important cellular processes. These domains can vary in size, composition, function, and how long they last. Some membrane domains are built from proteins. The membrane can contain distinct protein groups that carry out a cell’s specific functions. A clear example is the plasma membrane of a human sperm cell, which has different proteins in...

mechanisms of membrane domain formation

How Cell Membranes Form Domains

Cell membranes form domains when lipids and proteins gather into distinct regions. These regions, or membrane domains, are shaped by different physical properties that help some molecules stay together while others move apart. Some domains form through protein-protein interactions. Others depend on specific lipids, such as sphingolipids and sterols. Large proteins, including bacteriorhodopsin, can also cluster and create visible membrane domains. Membrane proteins can be held in place by...

mechanisms of membrane-bending

How Proteins Shape Cell Membranes

Cell membranes can bend into many shapes because they are flexible and made of a fluid mosaic. That bending can be temporary, as in vesicles, or long-lasting, as in microvilli. Cells control the size, place, and time of membrane curvature. Membrane bending can start inside the membrane itself or from proteins attaching to it. Changes in lipid makeup can create curvature, and proteins can help by making the membrane asymmetric or by clustering certain lipids. The shape of integral proteins also...

key terms and concepts

Learn how membrane carbohydrates stay on the cell surface, form the glycocalyx, and help determine blood group identity in human red blood cells.

Membrane Sugars and Cell Identity | JoVE K12

cell biology

JoVE Core Cell Biology illustrates complex cellular processes in easy-to-understand yet comprehensive animated video lessons. This collection focuses on the essential components and functions of cells, including organelles and membranes, cellular transport, and cell energetics. It is complemented by scientist-in-action videos that demonstrate the application of cell biology in real-world research experiments.

Florida Department of Education

High School

Life Science

SC.912.L.18

SC.912.L.18.2

What are Cells?

Cells are the smallest and basic units of life, whether it is a single cell that forms the entire organism, e.g., in a bacterium or trillions of them, ...

Cell Size

Cell sizes vary widely among and within organisms. Bacterial cells range between 1-10 micrometers (&#x3BC;m)and are considerably smaller than most ...

Eukaryotic Compartmentalization

One of the distinguishing features of eukaryotic cells is that they contain membrane-bound organelles, such as the nucleus and mitochondria, that carry ...

Prokaryotic Cells

Prokaryotes are small unicellular organisms that include the domains&#x2014;Archaea and Bacteria. Bacteria include many common organisms, such as ...

Cytoplasm

The cytoplasm consists of organelles and a framework of protein scaffolds called the cytoskeleton suspended in an aqueous solution, the cytosol. The ...

The Nucleus

The nucleus is a membrane-bound organelle that acts as a control center in a eukaryotic cell. It contains chromosomal DNA, which controls gene expression ...

Endoplasmic Reticulum

Endoplasmic ReticulumThe endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is an extensive network of membranous sacs and tubules in eukaryotic cells, continuous with the outer ...

Ribosomes

Ribosomes translate genetic information encoded by messenger RNA (mRNA) into proteins. Both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells have ribosomes. Cells that ...

Golgi Apparatus

As they leave the Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER), properly folded and assembled proteins are selectively packaged into vesicles. These vesicles are ...

Lysosomes

Lysosomes are membrane-enclosed spherical sacs derived from the Golgi apparatus. The most important function of the lysosome is degrading macromolecules ...

Peroxisomes

Peroxisomes and mitochondria are two important oxygen-utilizing organelles in eukaryotic cells. Mitochondria carry out cellular respiration&#x2014;the ...

Introduction to the Cytoskeleton

Overview of the Cytoskeleton
The cytoskeleton is a network of protein filaments present within the cell, having three distinct filaments ...

Introduction to Actin

Actin is a highly conserved cytoskeletal protein found abundantly in eukaryotic cells. It constitutes 10% weight of the total cellular protein in muscle ...

overview-of-myosin-structure-and-function

Overview of Myosin Structure and Function

Myosins are a family of molecular motor proteins, first identified in the skeletal muscles, where they are responsible for muscle contraction. Along with ...

Microtubules

Microtubules are the thickest cytoskeletal filaments with a diameter of 25 nm. In prokaryotic organisms, microtubules are commonly found in locomotory ...

The Structure of Intermediate Filaments

The intermediate filaments are one of three widely studied cytoskeletal filaments. They are so named as their diameter (10 nm) is in between that of ...

Types of Intermediate Filaments

The intermediate filaments are an essential component of the cytoskeleton. Presently six types of intermediate filament have been identified. Type I and ...

Gap Junctions

Multicellular organisms employ a variety of ways for cells to communicate with each other. Gap junctions are specialized proteins that form pores between ...

The Extracellular Matrix

In order to maintain tissue organization, many animal cells are surrounded by structural molecules that make up the extracellular matrix (ECM). Together, ...

Tissues

Cells with similar structure and function are grouped into tissues. A group of tissues with a specialized function is called an organ. There are four main ...

Plant Cell Wall

The plant cell wall gives plant cells shape, support, and protection. As a cell matures, its cell wall specializes according to the cell type. For ...

Plasmodesmata

The organs in a multicellular organism&#x2019;s body are made up of tissues formed by cells. To work together cohesively, cells must communicate. One way ...

pH Regulation in Cells

pH plays a critical role in maintaining normal cellular activities. It helps maintain the structure and function of various proteins, dictates the charge ...

Chemistry of the Cell

Introduction to Cellular Respiration

Organisms harvest energy from food, but this energy cannot be directly used by cells. Cells convert the energy stored in nutrients into a more usable ...

ATP Energy Storage and Release

ATP and Macromolecule Synthesis

Biological macromolecules are organic compounds, predominantly composed of carbon atoms. The carbon atoms are covalently bonded with hydrogen, oxygen, ...

1. Engage in evidence-based argument to relate a cell's function to the structure, function, and diversity of its components. Examples: Muscle cells have a large number of mitochondria, which create energy for contraction in the form of ATP. Some plant cells have a large vacuole which is used for storage and transport of excess nutrients in changing environments.

9-12.B.1.1

What is Gene Expression?

A gene is a stretch of DNA that serves as the blueprint for functional RNAs and proteins. Since DNA is comprised&#160; of nucleotides and proteins are ...

RNA Structure

The basic structure of RNA consists of a string of ribonucleotides attached by phosphodiester bonds. Although most RNA is single-stranded, it can form ...

Types of RNA

Three main types of RNA are involved in protein synthesis: messenger RNA (mRNA), transfer RNA (tRNA), and ribosomal RNA (rRNA). These RNAs perform diverse ...

Transcription

Transcription is the synthesis of RNA from a DNA sequence by RNA polymerase. It is the first step in producing a protein from a gene sequence. ...

Bacterial RNA Polymerase

Eukaryotic RNA Polymerases

General Transcription Factors

Tissue-specific transcription factors contribute to diverse cellular functions in mammals. For example, the gene for beta globin, a major component of ...

RNA Polymerase II Accessory Proteins

Transcription Elongation Factors

pre-mrna-processing-modification-of-pre-mrna-ends

Pre-mRNA Processing: Modification of pre-mRNA Ends

In eukaryotic cells, transcripts made by RNA polymerase are modified and processed before exiting the nucleus. Unprocessed RNA is called precursor mRNA or ...

Pre-mRNA Processing: RNA Splicing

Chromatin Structure and RNA Splicing

Alternative RNA Splicing

Nuclear Export of mRNA

Transfer RNA Synthesis

Ribosomal RNA Synthesis

The Nucleolus

Additional Subnuclear Structures

Translation

Translation is the process of synthesizing proteins from the genetic information carried by messenger RNA (mRNA). Following transcription, it constitutes ...

tRNA Activation

Initiation of Translation

Termination of Translation

Improving Translational Accuracy

prokaryotic-transcriptional-activators-and-repressors

Prokaryotic Transcriptional Activators and Repressors

Nonsense-mediated mRNA Decay

The Eukaryotic Promoter Region

Molecular Chaperones and Protein Folding

Co-activators and Co-repressors

The Proteasome

Master Transcription Regulators

Regulated Protein Degradation

Regulated mRNA Transport

Proteins: From Genes to Degradation

mRNA Stability and Gene Expression

Cell Specific Gene Expression

MicroRNAs

MicroRNA (miRNA) are short, regulatory RNA transcribed from introns (non-coding regions of a gene) or intergenic regions (stretches of DNA present between ...

regulation-of-expression-occurs-at-multiple-steps

Regulation of Expression Occurs at Multiple Steps

Small interfering RNAs (siRNA)

Cis-regulatory Sequences

lncRNA - Long Non-coding RNAs

cooperative-binding-of-transcription-regulators

Cooperative Binding of Transcription Regulators

Epigenetic Regulation

Epigenetic changes alter the physical structure of the DNA without changing the genetic sequence and often regulate whether genes are turned on or off. ...

2. Obtain and evaluate information to explain the role of DNA and RNA in transcription and translation leading to protein synthesis and cellular function.

9-12.B.1.2

Nucleic Acids and Nucleotides

Nucleic acids are the most important macromolecules for the continuity of life. They carry the cell&#39;s genetic blueprint and have instructions for its ...

Nucleic Acid Structure

The pentose sugar in DNA is deoxyribose, while in RNA the pentose sugar is ribose. The difference between the sugars is the presence of the hydroxyl group ...

a. Use a model to describe the structure and sequence of DNA, including nucleotide structure, base pairing, and the structure of the helix.

9-12.B.1.2.a

Membrane Sugars and Cell Identity

Description

Transcript

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