Name: blood types and transfusion matching
Uploaded: 2021-04-07T12:11:58.000Z
Duration: 2 min 20 s
Channel: JoVE

K12 Standards

Alabama Course of Study Science

9-12

Biology

heredity-inheritance-and-variation-of-traits

Heredity: Inheritance and Variation of Traits

9-12.B.3.11.a

Blood Types

קיבוץ דם ABO מחלק את הדם האנושי לארבעה סוגים בהתבסס על נוכחות או היעדר שני אנטיגנים ספציפיים, אנטיגן A ואנטיגן B, על פני תאי הדם האדומים. אנטיגנים אלה מקודדים על ידי שלושה אללים.
אלל אימונוגלובולין A, או פשוט אלל A, מקודד אנטיגן A על פני תא הדם האדום. באופן דומה, אלל B מקודד לאנטיגן B.
האלל השלישי - שנרשם כאות קטנה i ומכונה אלל O - אינו מקודד לאנטיגן, כלומר בכדוריות הדם האדומות אין אנטיגן A או אנטיגן B.
מכיוון שנוכחות האנטיגן מכתיבה את סוג הדם, האללים A ו-B דומיננטיים על פני אלל O, שאינו מייצר אנטיגנים. 
בני אדם הם אורגניזמים דיפלואידיים, ולכן הם מקבלים שני עותקים של האללים, אחד מכל הורה. לאדם עם שני עותקים של אלל A או עותק אחד של A והאלל הרצסיבי O יש סוג דם A. באופן דומה, לאדם שיש לו שני עותקים של אלל B או עותק אחד של B ולאלל הרצסיבי O יש דם מסוג B.
עותק אחד של אלל A ועותק אחד של אלל B גורם לדם מסוג AB, דוגמה לדומיננטיות, שבה שני האנטיגנים באים לידי ביטוי על פני תאי הדם האדומים. לעומת זאת, אדם עם שני עותקים של אלל רצסיבי שאינו אנטיגן המבטא יהיה סוג דם O.
שקול זכר עם סוג דם AB ונקבה עם סוג דם O. צאצאיהם עשויים לרשת עותק אחד של אלל A או B מהאב ואלל רצסיבי מהאם, וכתוצאה מכך צאצאים עם דם מסוג A או B .
גורם רזוס הוא מערכת הקלדת דם נוספת, הפעם המבוססת על אנטיגן Rh המכונה גם אנטיגן D על תאי הדם האדומים. נוכחותו של האנטיגן D מסומנת בסימן פלוס, והיעדרו מסומן בסימן מינוס.
שילוב של שתי מערכות הקלדה, אדם יכול להיות מסווג כמו A, B, AB, או O עם גורמי Rh חיוביים או שליליים.

<ol>
	<li>Palacajornsuk, P. "הבסיס המולקולרי של גרסאות קבוצת הדם MNS". אימונוהמטולוגיה-וושינגטון הבירה- 22, מס '4 (2006): 171.</li>
	<li>אוונט, ניל ד. ומריון א. ריד. "מערכת קבוצת הדם Rh: סקירה." דם, כתב העת של האגודה האמריקאית להמטולוגיה 95, מס '2 (2000): 375-387.</li>
	<li>מדריך בנושא סוג דם, פרויקט הביולוגיה, אוניברסיטת אריזונה, http://www.biology.arizona.edu</li>
</ol>

סוגי דם

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דם אנושי מסווג לסוגים שונים בהתבסס על נוכחות אנטיגנים על פני כדוריות הדם האדומות ונוגדנים בפלזמה. זיהוי נכון של סוג הדם חיוני לעירוי דם מוצלח. האגודה הבינלאומית לעירוי דם זיהתה 38 סוגי דם אנושיים המבוססים על אנטיגנים על פני השטח של תאי הדם האדומים. הסוגים הנפוצים ביותר הם סוגי דם ABO, Rh ו-MNS.

קבוצת דם ABO

אנטיגנים של ABO הם גליקופרוטאינים המקודדים על ידי גנים המצויים בכרומוזום 9. לתאי דם אדומים יש חלק גליקופרוטאין בסיס המורכב מפרוקטוזה, גלקטוזה ו-N-אצטילגלוקוזאמין הנקרא אנטיגן H. דם עם אנטיגן H בלבד על פני תאי הדם האדומים מסווג כסוג דם O. תוספת של מולקולת פחמימה סופנית - N-acetylgalactosamine לאנטיגן H מרכיבה את אנטיגן-A. נוכחות של גלקטוז סופני על אנטיגן H עושה את האנטיגן B. בקבוצת דם נדירה הנקראת קבוצת דם בומביי, לחולים חסר אנטיגן H על תאי דם אדומים. קבוצת דם בומביי היא מצב נדיר ביותר עם התרחשות נמוכה של כ-4 למיליון אוכלוסייה אנושית.

קבוצת דם MNS

אנטיגנים מקבוצת הדם של MNS מתבטאים על פני השטח של תאי דם אדומים. הם מקודדים על ידי שני גנים מאוד פולימורפיים, גליקופורין (A (GYPA וגליקופורין (B (GYPB. ה-GYPA מקודד לאנטיגן M או N, ואילו GYPB מקודד לאנטיגן S או s ולאנטיגן ('N ('N. גנים אלה יכולים לשלב מחדש כדי לייצר למעלה מ-40 אנטיגנים שונים.

קבוצת דם Rh

גורם Rh הוא אנטיגן נוסף הקיים על פני כדוריות הדם האדומות. בהתבסס על נוכחותו או היעדרו, אדם יכול להיות מסווג כ-Rh חיובי או שלילי. לנדשטיינר ווינר טבעו את המונח Rh-factor בשנת 1937. מאוחר יותר, שונה שמו של הנוגדן האלו-אנושי לאנטי-D. עד כה, יותר מ-45 אנטיגנים שונים מזוהים במערכת ה-Rh. קבוצת דם RH משמשת לרוב יחד עם קיבוץ דם ABO.
</div>

הדם האנושי מסווג לסוגים שונים בהתבסס על נוכחות אנטיגנים על פני השטח של תאי הדם האדומים ונוגדנים בפלזמה. המתאים...

Education

JoVE Core

Molecular Biology

ביולוגיה מולקולרית

Unit 2

יחידה 2

Mendelian Genetics

גנטיקה מנדלית

KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS

מונחים ומושגים מרכזיים

blood types and transfusion matching

Human blood types help determine safe blood transfusion matching. Blood is classified by antigens on the surface of red blood cells and antibodies in the plasma. Correct blood typing matters because an unsafe match can affect transfusion success. The International Society of Blood Transfusion has identified 38 human blood types, and ABO, Rh, and MNS are among the most common.

The ABO blood group depends on antigens made by genes on chromosome 9. Red blood cells carry a base glycoprotein called the H-antigen. If only the H-antigen is present, the blood type is O. Adding N-acetylgalactosamine produces antigen A, while adding terminal galactose produces antigen B.

A rare blood group called the Bombay blood group is different because these patients lack H-antigen on red blood cells. This condition is extremely rare, with an occurrence as low as about 4 per million people. The ABO system therefore includes both common blood types and a rare exception that changes how blood is classified.

The MNS blood group is another red blood cell system. Its antigens are encoded by two highly polymorphic genes, glycophorin A (GYPA) and glycophorin B (GYPB). GYPA codes for M or N antigen. GYPB codes for S or s antigen and also the N antigen. These genes can recombine to produce more than 40 different antigens.

The Rh blood group is based on the presence or absence of Rh factor on the red blood cell surface. A person is classified as Rh positive or Rh negative depending on that antigen. Landsteiner and Wiener coined the term Rh-factor in 1937, and the human alloantibody was later renamed anti-D. More than 45 Rh antigens have been identified, and Rh grouping is most often used together with ABO blood grouping.

Blood Types and Transfusion Matching

punnett squares

Predicting Traits with Punnett Squares

Punnett squares help students predict how traits may be passed from parents to offspring. They are a simple grid used in genetics to organize possible allele combinations. An allele is a version of a gene. The square compares the alleles each parent can give. By filling in the boxes, students can see possible genotypes, which are the genetic makeup of offspring. The results can also help connect those genotypes to traits that may appear in the next generation.

monohybrid crosses

Tracking One Trait in Monohybrid Crosses

Monohybrid crosses track how one trait is passed from parents to offspring. They are used to study inheritance when only a single characteristic is followed at a time. A monohybrid cross can compare the possible outcomes for a monogenic trait, which is a trait controlled by one gene. This approach helps show how one gene can shape different inherited forms of the same characteristic. The method also connects with Mendel's work on genetics. It is a useful way to predict patterns of inheritance...

dihybrid crosses

Predicting Two-Trait Genetic Crosses

Dihybrid crosses are used to predict how two traits can be passed from parents to offspring. A dihybrid cross tracks two genes at the same time, so it helps students see how different alleles can combine in a genetic pattern. This topic is closely tied to Mendelian genetics and independent assortment. Independent assortment means that allele pairs for different traits can separate into gametes independently of one another. When students work through a dihybrid cross, they can compare the...

trihybrid crosses

Forked Line Method for Trihybrid Crosses

Forked line method for trihybrid crosses helps predict the outcome of three-trait Mendelian crosses. A trihybrid cross studies three pairs of contrasting characteristics. It combines three separate monohybrid crosses. Common examples include plant height, seed shape, and seed color. In a typical trihybrid cross, the F1 plants are heterozygous for all three traits. They can produce eight different gametes. After self-fertilization, these gametes can lead to 64 genotype combinations in the F2...

law of independent assortment

Independent Chromosome Assortment in Meiosis

Independent chromosome assortment in meiosis explains how different gene pairs can be inherited independently. This idea is one of Mendel’s laws of inheritance and is often called the law of independent assortment. The pattern depends on how homologous chromosomes line up during meiosis I. Each chromosome pair orients independently of the others, so the maternal and paternal chromosomes can separate into different gametes in many combinations. This random separation helps create genetic...

chi-square analysis

Chi-Square Test in Genetics

The chi-square test in genetics helps compare expected and observed results. It is a statistical hypothesis test used to see whether a difference between an expected value and an observed value is significant. In genetics, it helps decide whether to accept or reject a hypothesis based on how far the observed data moves from the expected data. The test was developed by Pearson in 1990. The first step is to set up a null hypothesis. This hypothesis says there is no real difference between the...

pedigree analysis

Tracing Traits with Pedigree Charts

Pedigree analysis uses family trees, called pedigrees, to trace how traits and diseases pass from one generation to the next. A pedigree chart helps scientists and students see inheritance patterns clearly across relatives. The chart uses standard symbols to show family members and their relationships. It can reveal whether a trait is likely passed through dominant or recessive inheritance, and it can also help identify patterns linked to sex chromosomes. By studying a pedigree, it is...

multiple allele traits

Multiple Alleles in Trait Inheritance

Multiple alleles can shape how a trait is inherited in a population. A gene may have more than two allele forms, even though each person still carries only two alleles for that gene. These allele combinations can produce traits with more than two possible outcomes. The ABO blood group system is a common example of a multiple allele trait. It shows how different alleles can interact to determine an organism’s phenotype, or observable trait. Multiple allele traits help explain why inheritance...

incomplete dominance

Incomplete Dominance in Traits and Disease

Incomplete dominance is a pattern of inheritance where two alleles both affect a trait in a heterozygous organism. In this case, one allele is not fully dominant over the other. The result is a phenotype that looks like a blend or intermediate form. Gregor Mendel’s pea plant experiments helped explain the usual dominant and recessive pattern. He showed that each gene in a diploid cell has two alleles, one inherited from each parent. In his model, a dominant allele shows its effect with one or...

lethal alleles

When Genes Cause Embryonic Death

Lethal alleles can change inheritance patterns by causing death before birth. In mice, Lucien Cuénot studied the agouti gene, which helps control coat color through an agouti-signaling protein that affects melanin distribution in mammals. The wild-type allele produces a gray-brown coat, while the mutant allele produces a yellow coat. Cuénot also found that the yellow allele was linked to yellow mouse obesity syndrome. This syndrome is associated with early-onset obesity and tumors. When he...

polygenic traits

Traits Shaped by Many Genes

Polygenic traits are characteristics shaped by many genes acting together. This pattern is different from a single-gene trait, where one gene has a larger effect on the outcome. In polygenic inheritance, each gene adds a small contribution to the final trait. Height is a common example of a polygenic trait. Many genes influence human height, so the result can vary across a wide range. These small genetic effects combine to produce differences that are easy to see in a population. Polygenic...

background and environment affect phenotype

background-and-environment-affect-phenotype

How Genes and Environment Shape Traits

Genes and the environment work together to shape phenotype, or the visible traits of an organism. A phenotype can change because of genetic background, environmental conditions, or both. Factors such as temperature, oxygen availability, and mutagens can all influence how a trait appears. Horses show how one gene can affect coat color and how a modifier gene can change that result. The Extension gene controls pigment production in the coat. The wild-type genotype EE produces black pigment,...

x and y chromosomes

Sex Chromosomes in Human Inheritance

Sex chromosomes help determine biological sex in mammals, including humans. Humans have two sex chromosomes, X and Y. Each diploid cell has 22 pairs of autosomes and one pair of sex chromosomes. A female usually has two X chromosomes, while a male usually has one X chromosome and one Y chromosome. Egg and sperm cells carry only half the usual number of chromosomes. They contain 22 autosomes and one sex chromosome. Every egg has an X chromosome. Sperm cells can carry either an X or a Y...

the y chromosome determines maleness

Y Chromosome Structure and Male Traits

The Y chromosome is a sex chromosome that helps guide male development in humans and other vertebrates and mammals. Human males usually have one X chromosome and one Y chromosome, along with 22 pairs of autosomes. In these organisms, the presence or absence of the Y chromosome influences whether male traits develop. The Y chromosome evolved from an autosome about 300 million years ago, when two sex chromosomes began to diverge. Since then, it has lost most of its genes and become much smaller.

the ratio of x chromosome to autosomes

Drosophila Sex Determination by X:A Balance

In Drosophila, sex is determined by the balance between X chromosomes and autosomes, not by the X and Y chromosomes alone. The Y chromosome is active in these flies, but it does not set sex. Instead, it carries genes needed for sperm production in adult males. A normal male Drosophila has one X chromosome and two sets of autosomes. A normal female has two X chromosomes and two sets of autosomes. When this X:A ratio changes, flies can develop different sexual phenotypes, including metamales,...

x-linked traits

X-Linked Inheritance in Families

X-linked inheritance in families explains how traits linked to the X chromosome pass from parents to children. These traits are often tracked through family trees because the pattern can differ between males and females. A male has one X chromosome and one Y chromosome. A female has two X chromosomes. Because of this difference, a trait on the X chromosome can show up in a different way depending on the sex of the child. Family examples often include traits such as color blindness. Studying...

sex linked disorders

Sex-Linked Disorders and Inheritance Patterns

Sex-linked disorders are genetic conditions that follow inheritance patterns tied to the sex chromosomes. These disorders help explain how certain traits can appear more often in one sex than the other. The transcript focuses on examples of sex-linked disorders, including Y-linked infertility, Fragile X syndrome, and Duchenne muscular dystrophy. Y-linked infertility is passed through the Y chromosome, while Fragile X syndrome and Duchenne muscular dystrophy are associated with sex-linked...

dosage compensation

X-Chromosome Balance in Animals

X-chromosome balance in animals helps equalize gene expression between males and females. Sex can be determined by the number and type of sex chromosomes. In humans, females have two X chromosomes and males have one X and one Y chromosome. In C. elegans, one X chromosome is male, while two X chromosomes make a hermaphrodite. The X chromosome carries more than sex-related genes. It also includes genes involved in body functions such as brain development and the immune system. Because males and...

x-inactivation

X-Inactivation and Barr Bodies

X-inactivation is a process that reduces gene activity on one X chromosome. It helps balance gene expression in cells that have more than one X chromosome. A key result of this process is the formation of a Barr body, which is the inactive X chromosome seen in the nucleus. This topic also includes Xist, a gene linked to X-inactivation. Xist produces RNA that coats the X chromosome and helps turn it off. Together, Xist and the Barr body show how cells control X-linked genes during development...

blood types

Human blood types help determine safe blood transfusion matching. Blood is classified by antigens on the surface of red blood cells and antibodies in the plasma. Correct blood typing matters because an unsafe match can affect transfusion success. The International Society of Blood Transfusion has identified 38 human blood types, and ABO, Rh, and MNS are among the most common. The ABO blood group depends on antigens made by genes on chromosome 9. Red blood cells carry a base glycoprotein called...

blood transfusion and agglutination

Matching Blood Types for Safe Transfusion

Blood transfusion is a medical treatment used to restore blood volume after major blood loss from an accident or a medical procedure. It works by taking blood from a suitable donor and giving it to a recipient. Safe transfusion depends on matching blood types and checking for immune compatibility. The history of blood transfusion began in the 17th century, when early experiments were done in animals. In 1818, James Blundell, a British doctor, performed the first successful human blood...

key terms and concepts

Learn how ABO, Rh, and MNS blood groups are identified by cell-surface antigens, and why matching blood types matters for safe transfusions.

Blood Types and Transfusion Matching | JoVE K12

molecular biology

JoVE Core Molecular Biology showcases the molecular processes of the cell through clear and concise animated video lessons. Additionally, in scientist-in-action videos, these concepts' application is demonstrated through real experiments in modern laboratories.

Chi-square Analysis

The chi-square test is a statistical hypothesis test. It is used to check whether there is a significant difference between an expected value and an ...

Pedigree Analysis

Probability Laws

Overview

The probability of inheriting a trait can be calculated using the sum and product rules. The sum rule is used to calculate the probability of ...

11. Use probability and statistical models to explain the variation of expressed traits within a population. Examples: pedigree charts, family and population studies

9-12.B.3.11

Punnett Squares

Monohybrid Crosses

Dihybrid Crosses

Trihybrid Crosses

Trihybrid Crosses
Some of Mendel&#8217;s crosses examined three pairs of contrasting characteristics. Such a cross is called a trihybrid cross. A ...

Law of Independent Assortment

Multiple Allele Traits

Incomplete Dominance

Gregor Mendel&#39;s work (1822 - 1884) was primarily focused on pea plants. Through his initial experiments, he determined that every gene in a diploid ...

Lethal Alleles

Agouti: A Lethal Allele
Lucien Cu&#233;not discovered lethal alleles in 1905 while studying the inheritance of coat color in mice. The agouti gene is ...

Polygenic Traits

Background and Environment Affect Phenotype

Although the genetic makeup of an organism plays a major role in determining the phenotype, there are also several environmental factors, such as ...

X and Y Chromosomes

Among mammals, the gender of an organism is determined by the sex chromosomes. Humans have two sex chromosomes, X and Y. Every human diploid cell has 22 ...

The Y Chromosome Determines Maleness

The Y chromosome is a sex chromosome&#160;found in several vertebrates and mammals, including humans. In addition to 22 pairs of autosomes, the human ...

The Ratio of X Chromosome to Autosomes

In most organisms, sex is determined by the ratio of X and Y chromosomes. However, in some organisms, such as Drosophila and C.elegans, sex is determined ...

X-linked Traits

Sex Linked Disorders

Dosage Compensation

In animals, gender is determined by the number and type of sex chromosome. For example, human females have two X chromosomes, and males have one X and one ...

X-inactivation

Human blood is classified into different types based on the presence of antigens on the red blood cell&#39;s surface and antibodies in the plasma. Proper ...

Blood Transfusion and Agglutination

Blood transfusion is a therapeutic measure to restore the blood volume after extensive blood loss due to an accident or a medical procedure. Blood ...

a. Use mathematics and computational thinking to predict patterns of inheritance, including dominance, recessiveness, codominance, and incomplete dominance. Examples: Use a Punnett square to illustrate codominance in genes for blood types. Use probability rules to predict the phenotypes of offspring from different parental combinations.

Epistasis

In addition to multiple alleles at the same locus influencing traits, numerous genes or alleles at different locations may interact and influence ...

When more than one gene is responsible for a given phenotype, the trait is considered polygenic. Human height is a polygenic trait. Studies have uncovered ...

Pleiotropy

Pleiotropy is the phenomenon in which a single gene impacts multiple, seemingly unrelated phenotypic traits. For example, defects in the SOX10 gene cause ...

Nature and Nurture

Many human characteristics, like height, are shaped by both nature&mdash;in other words, by our genes&mdash;and by nurture, or our environment. For ...

b. Obtain, evaluate, and communicate information about how the interplay of heritable risk factors, somatic mutations, and environment influences human disease. Examples: Because heart disease has heritable and environmental risk factors, a person's total risk needs to include both factors. Cancers have both heritable (breast, lung, colorectal, skin, cervical cancer) and environmental risk factors (smoking, diet, sun exposure, HPV exposure). Clarification: Epigenetics could be an extension of this standard.

9-12.B.3.11.b

Spermatogenesis

Spermatogenesis is the process by which haploid sperm cells are produced in the male testes. It starts with stem cells located close to the outer rim of ...

Oogenesis

In human women, oogenesis produces one mature egg cell or ovum for every precursor cell that enters meiosis. This process differs in two unique ways from ...

What is Meiosis?

Meiosis is the process by which diploid cells divide to produce haploid daughter cells. In humans, each diploid cell contains 46 chromosomes, half from ...

Meiosis I

Meiosis II

Meiosis vs. Mitosis

Crossing Over

Crossing over is the exchange of genetic information between homologous chromosomes during prophase I of meiosis I. Genetic recombination gives rise to ...

Nondisjunction

Nondisjunction is the failure of homologous chromosomes or sister chromatids to separate correctly and move to the opposite poles of the cells. This ...

Karyotyping

12. Develop and use an evidence-based model to illustrate the formation of reproductive cells through the process of meiosis. Example: Use karyotype cutouts to illustrate independent assortment into reproductive cells.

9-12.B.3.12

Homologous Recombination

The basic reaction of homologous recombination (HR) involves two chromatids that contain DNA sequences sharing a significant stretch of identity. One of ...

Gene Conversion

Other than maintaining genome stability via DNA repair, homologous recombination plays an important role in diversifying the genome. In fact, the ...

overview-of-transposition-and-recombination

Overview of Transposition and Recombination

Transposons make up a significant part of genomes of various organisms. Therefore, it is believed that transposition played a major evolutionary role in ...

conservative-site-specific-recombination-and-phase-variation

Conservative Site-specific Recombination and Phase Variation

Because the DNA segments are cut and reorganized in a direction-specific manner, site-specific recombination has emerged as an efficient genetic ...

a. Construct an explanation of how new genetic combinations and variations occur during crossover.

9-12.B.3.12.a

Organization of Genes

Chromosome Structure

A functional eukaryotic chromosome must contain three elements: a centromere, telomeres, and numerous origins of replication.
The centromere is a DNA ...

Chromosome Replication

Before a cell can divide, it must accurately replicate all of its chromosomes, including the DNA and its associated histone and non-histone ...

Teratogenicity

The ability of a drug to produce structural deformations and functional abnormalities in the developing embryo or the fetus is called teratogenicity, and ...

Mutagenicity and Carcinogenicity

Mutagenicity and carcinogenicity refer to the ability of drugs to cause genetic defects and induce cancer, respectively. The International Agency for ...

An Overview of Genetic Analysis

An organism&#8217;s physical traits, or phenotype, are a product of its genotype, which is the combination of alleles (gene variants) inherited from its ...

Genetic Crosses

To dissect genetic processes or create organisms with novel suites of traits, scientists can perform genetic crosses, or the purposeful mating of two ...

Genetic Screens

Genetic screens are critical tools for defining gene function and understanding gene interactions. Screens typically involve mutating genes and then ...

b. Obtain, evaluate, and communicate information about how errors during meiosis and environmental factors affect the expression of traits. Examples: Translocation between chromosomes 8 and 11 can cause myeloproliferative disorder and lymphoma. Smoking and exposure to teratogenic chemicals can alter genes in reproductive cells that can be passed on to offspring.

9-12.B.3.12.b

Blood Types and Transfusion Matching

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