DNA, Cells, and Evolution

DNA has a helical structure that helps store genetic information. The double helix is the shape formed by two strands that twist around each other. This structure is a key feature of DNA in cells.

The two strands are held together by base pairing. Bases on one strand match with bases on the other strand in a regular way. This pairing helps keep the DNA molecule stable and organized.

The helix shape also helps explain how DNA fits into chromosomes and carries instructions for living things. By...

The central dogma explains how genetic information moves from DNA to RNA to protein. This flow is a key idea in molecular biology. It helps show how cells use genes to make the molecules that carry out work.

DNA stores the instructions for making proteins. During transcription, a gene in DNA is copied into RNA. The RNA then carries that message to the next stage.

In translation, the RNA message is used to build a protein. Proteins do much of the cell’s work, so this process connects genes to...

Prokaryotic cells have a simple internal structure compared with many other cells. They are usually divided into two groups: bacteria and archaea. These cells have no nucleus, so their DNA is not enclosed in a membrane-bound compartment.

Instead, the genetic material is found in the nucleoid, a region where the DNA is located in the cell. Some prokaryotic cells also contain plasmids, which are small extra DNA molecules. A capsule may surround the cell and provide an additional outer layer.

Eukaryotic cells use compartments to organize many different jobs inside one cell. These compartments help separate processes so they can happen in the right place.

The compartment called the cytosol is the fluid part of the cell. It surrounds the other internal structures and helps support many cell processes.

Inside the cell, membrane-bound organelles create distinct microenvironments. A microenvironment is a small internal space with conditions that fit a specific task. This separation...

The tree of life shows how organisms are related through evolution. Its root represents the common ancestor of all life on Earth. From that point, branches spread out like a tree. The tips of the branches represent living, or extant, species. Species that no longer exist, called extinct species, appear closer to the center of the tree. Today, these organisms are grouped into three domains: bacteria, archaea, and eukaryotes. Scientists still debate these divisions, so the tree of life keeps...

Mutations are changes in DNA. They can alter the genetic code and affect how genes work. In high school biology, students often study mutations to understand how DNA changes can influence traits.

The transcript focuses on two common mutation types: point mutations and frameshift mutations. A point mutation changes one nucleotide, which is one DNA building block. A frameshift mutation happens when nucleotides are added or removed and the reading frame shifts.

These changes matter because they...

Gene regions do not all change at the same rate. In eukaryotes, long stretches of DNA do not code for proteins or RNAs. Some of these non-coding regions include important regulatory sequences, but most have no known function. Because little or no selection pressure acts on them, they often change the fastest over evolutionary time.

Protein-coding regions usually evolve more slowly. A change in a coding sequence can alter a protein and make it less effective at doing its job. That creates...

Genome size can vary widely, and it also helps show how new genes form. Every living organism has a genome, whether it uses RNA or DNA. Yet the size of that genome can be very different from one organism to another.

One major difference is whether the organism is prokaryotic or eukaryotic. Prokaryotic genomes usually have little to no non-coding sequence, which means genes are packed closely together in operons along the chromosome. Eukaryotic genomes contain long stretches of non-coding DNA...

Gene families are groups of genes that are thought to come from a shared ancestor. They usually form when a gene is copied by mistake during cell division. The original gene stays under selection pressure to keep its job, while the extra copy can change more quickly over time.

Some copied genes gain a new role in the organism. When that happens, they are called paralogs, which are two genes in the same species that evolved from one common ancestral gene. Gene families also include orthologs,...

Genetic transfer is the movement of genetic information from one organism to another. It happens in two main ways: vertical gene transfer and horizontal gene transfer. Vertical gene transfer moves genes from one generation to the next. It is much more common than horizontal gene transfer.

Vertical gene transfer happens during both sexual reproduction and asexual reproduction. In both cases, one or more organisms pass some or all of their genome to their offspring. This kind of transfer occurs...