Name: lewis structures, bonds, and formal charge
Uploaded: 2025-05-22T09:05:32.000Z
Duration: 2 min 19 s
Channel: JoVE

K12 Standards

Tennessee Academic Standards

High School

Chemistry

Matter and Its Interactions

CHEM1.PS1.12

Lewis Structures and Formal Charges

Le strutture di Lewis sono rappresentazioni semplificate di legami chimici tra atomi. Si consideri l'etene, dove due atomi di carbonio con quattro elettroni di valenza ciascuno sono circondati da quattro atomi di idrogeno aventi un elettrone di valenza ciascuno. Quindi, l'etene ha un totale di dodici elettroni di valenza.
Ci vogliono ventiquattro elettroni per soddisfare gli ottetti per due atomi di carbonio e i duetti per quattro atomi di idrogeno. Pertanto, dodici elettroni devono essere condivisi tra gli atomi. Con solo dodici elettroni disponibili, devono essere tutti elettroni di legame per consentire a tutti gli atomi di raggiungere una configurazione elettronica stabile.
A volte, gli atomi nelle strutture poliatomiche non esibiscono il numero standard di elettroni di valenza. In tali casi, una carica formale diversa da zero, F, è associata all'atomo anomalo. La carica formale è uguale al numero di elettroni di valenza sull'atomo neutro meno il numero di legami e di elettroni non condivisi su quell'atomo.
Ad esempio, nello ione ammonio, ogni atomo di idrogeno ha un elettrone di valenza nella sua forma neutra ed è legato da un singolo legame, producendo una carica formale pari a zero.
Questo lascia l'atomo di azoto con quattro elettroni di valenza invece dei suoi soliti cinque elettroni di valenza. Poiché gli manca un elettrone, ha una carica formale di uno in più. Pertanto, la carica complessiva sullo ione ammonio è di uno più.
Le configurazioni stabili in genere riducono al minimo gli addebiti formali. Per alcuni elementi più grandi, l'ottetto può essere espanso per condividere più di otto elettroni per raggiungere una configurazione con meno cariche formali.
Ad esempio, l'atomo di zolfo nel triossido di zolfo può formare legami sia singoli che doppi con gli atomi di ossigeno circostanti. Tuttavia, la disposizione a doppio legame è preferibile, in quanto riduce la carica formale complessiva sull'atomo.
Altre eccezioni alla regola dell'ottetto includono i composti contenenti boro, che hanno un bersaglio di sei elettroni condivisi, piuttosto che otto, perché il raggiungimento di un ottetto richiede una carica formale.

Adattato da <a href="https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-2e/pages/7-3-lewis-symbols-and-structures">Openstax, Chimica 2e, Sezione 7.3: Simboli e strutture di Lewis</a> e <a href="https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-2e/pages/7-4-formal-charges-and-resonance">Openstax, Chimica 2e, Sezione 7.4: Cariche formali e risonanza</a>.

strutture di lewis e oneri formali

I simboli di Lewis possono essere utilizzati per indicare la formazione di legami covalenti: questi sono mostrati nelle strutture di Lewis, disegni che descrivono il legame in molecole e ioni poliatomici. La tavola periodica può essere utilizzata per prevedere il numero di elettroni di valenza in un atomo e il numero di legami che si formeranno per raggiungere un ottetto. Gli elementi del gruppo 18, come l'argon e l'elio, hanno configurazioni elettroniche piene e quindi raramente partecipano ai legami chimici. Tuttavia, gli atomi del gruppo 17, come il bromo o lo iodio, necessitano di un solo elettrone per raggiungere l'ottetto. Quindi, gli atomi appartenenti al gruppo 17 possono formare un singolo legame covalente. Gli atomi del gruppo 16 necessitano di due elettroni per raggiungere un ottetto; quindi, possono formare due legami covalenti. Allo stesso modo, il carbonio, che appartiene al gruppo 14, ha bisogno di altri quattro elettroni per raggiungere un ottetto; quindi, il carbonio può formare quattro legami covalenti.

Consideriamo la struttura di Lewis della molecola di cloro:

<img alt="Figure1" src="/files/ftp_upload/11681/PTfigure_1.svg" style="text-align: center; height: 30px;">

La struttura di Lewis indica che ciascun atomo di Cl ha tre coppie di elettroni che non vengono utilizzati nel legame (chiamate coppie solitarie) e una coppia di elettroni condivisa (scritta tra gli atomi). A volte viene utilizzato un trattino (o una linea) per indicare una coppia di elettroni condivisa: Cl-Cl

Una singola coppia di elettroni condivisa è chiamata legame singolo. Ogni atomo di Cl interagisce con otto elettroni di valenza: i sei nelle coppie solitarie e i due nel legame singolo. Tuttavia, una coppia di atomi potrebbe dover condividere più di una coppia di elettroni per ottenere l'ottetto richiesto.

Un doppio legame si forma quando due coppie di elettroni sono condivise tra una coppia di atomi, come tra gli atomi di carbonio e ossigeno nel CH2O (formaldeide).

<img alt="Figure2" src="/files/ftp_upload/11681/PTfigure_2.svg" style="text-align: center; height: 60px;">

Un triplo legame si forma quando tre coppie di elettroni sono condivise da una coppia di atomi, come nel monossido di carbonio (CO).

<img alt="Figure3" src="/files/ftp_upload/11681/PTfigure_3.svg" style="text-align: center; height: 20px;">

La carica formale di un atomo in una molecola è la carica ipotetica che l'atomo avrebbe se gli elettroni nei legami fossero distribuiti uniformemente tra gli atomi. La carica formale può essere calcolata sottraendo la somma del numero di elettroni non di legame e del numero di legami su un atomo (o metà del numero di elettroni di legame) dal numero di elettroni di valenza dell'atomo neutro:

Carica formale = # elettroni del guscio di valenza (atomo libero) − # elettroni di coppie solitarie − # legami

I calcoli della carica formale possono essere ricontrollati determinando la somma delle cariche formali per l'intera struttura. La somma delle cariche formali di tutti gli atomi in una molecola neutra deve essere zero; la somma delle cariche formali di uno ione dovrebbe essere uguale alla carica dello ione. Ricorda che la carica formale calcolata per un atomo non è la carica effettiva dell'atomo nella molecola. La carica formale è solo un'utile procedura di calcolo; non indica la presenza di carica effettiva.

Strutture di Lewis e oneri formali

I simboli di Lewis possono essere usati per indicare la formazione di legami covalenti, che sono mostrati nelle strutture di Lewis, disegni che descrivono il legame in ...

Education

Didattica

JoVE Core

Organic Chemistry

Chimica Organica

Unit 1

Unità 1

Covalent Bonding and Structure

Legame covalente e struttura

KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS

TERMINI E CONCETTI CHIAVE

lewis structures, bonds, and formal charge

Lewis structures show how atoms share electrons in covalent bonds and in polyatomic ions. Lewis symbols help draw these structures, and the periodic table helps predict how many valence electrons an atom has and how many bonds it can form to reach an octet.

Group 18 elements, such as argon and helium, already have filled electron configurations. They rarely take part in chemical bonding. Atoms in group 17, such as bromine and iodine, need one more electron to reach an octet, so they can form one covalent bond. Atoms in group 16 need two electrons, so they can form two covalent bonds. Carbon is in group 14 and needs four more electrons, so it can form four covalent bonds.

The chlorine molecule is a simple example of a Lewis structure. Each Cl atom has three lone pairs, which are electron pairs not used in bonding, and one shared pair between the atoms. A dash or line can show this shared pair, so the bond can be written as Cl–Cl. A single shared pair is a single bond, and each chlorine atom reaches eight valence electrons when its lone pairs and bond are counted.

Some atoms must share more than one pair of electrons to complete an octet. A double bond forms when two pairs of electrons are shared, as in formaldehyde, CH2O, between carbon and oxygen. A triple bond forms when three electron pairs are shared, as in carbon monoxide, CO. These bond types help show how atoms connect in a molecule.

Formal charge is a bookkeeping tool for Lewis structures. It is the hypothetical charge an atom would have if bonding electrons were shared evenly. To calculate it, subtract the number of lone pair electrons and the number of bonds from the number of valence shell electrons in the free atom. The formal charges in a neutral molecule must add to zero, and the formal charges in an ion must add to the ion’s charge. Even so, formal charge is not the same as actual charge on an atom.

Lewis Structures, Bonds, and Formal Charge

what is organic chemistry?

Carbon Compounds in Everyday Life

Organic chemistry focuses on carbon compounds called organic compounds. These compounds may come from living things or be made by chemists. Carbon is the main element in them, and it bonds with other carbon atoms as well as hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and sulfur. Carbon can form up to four strong bonds. That ability lets carbon atoms build chains and rings of many sizes, shapes, and levels of complexity. Not every carbon-containing substance is classified as organic. Carbonates, cyanides, and...

electronic structure of atoms

Atomic Orbitals and Quantum Numbers

Atomic orbitals and quantum numbers describe how electrons are arranged around the nucleus. An atom has a small, positively charged nucleus with electrons surrounding it. The nucleus contains protons and neutrons, and the quantum mechanical model gives a better picture of this structure than older models. Protons carry a +1 charge and have a mass of 1.0073 amu. Neutrons have no charge and have a mass of 1.0087 amu. Electrons carry a −1 charge and have a mass of 0.00055 amu. The number of...

electron configurations

How Electrons Fill Atomic Orbitals

Electron filling in atoms follows a set order based on orbital energy. The Aufbau principle says each new electron enters the lowest-energy subshell available. The Pauli exclusion principle says no two electrons can share the same set of four quantum numbers. Hund’s rule of maximum multiplicity says electrons stay unpaired in equal-energy orbitals when possible. The order of filling follows the relative energies of the subshells. A common sequence is 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, and so on.

chemical bonds

Chemical Bonds: Types and Strength

Chemical bonds help atoms reach a full valence shell like the nearest noble gas. The main bond types are ionic, covalent, and metallic. Bond energy and bond length also help explain how strong a bond is. An ionic bond forms from electrostatic attraction between cations and anions. In many cases, one atom transfers electrons to another atom, and the ions form from that transfer. Ionic bonds have no defined direction because the attraction spreads evenly through three-dimensional space. A...

polar covalent bonds

Electronegativity in Polar Covalent Bonds

Polar covalent bonds form when atoms share electrons unevenly. This happens in covalent bonds between atoms that have similar, but not identical, tendencies to attract electrons. Nonmetal atoms often make these bonds with other nonmetals. Hydrogen gas, H2, is a simple example of a covalent bond between two hydrogen atoms. A covalent bond begins when two atoms move close enough for their valence orbitals to overlap. In hydrogen, the 1s orbitals overlap and the single electrons on each atom...

lewis structures and formal charges

Lewis structures show how atoms share electrons in covalent bonds and in polyatomic ions. Lewis symbols help draw these structures, and the periodic table helps predict how many valence electrons an atom has and how many bonds it can form to reach an octet. Group 18 elements, such as argon and helium, already have filled electron configurations. They rarely take part in chemical bonding. Atoms in group 17, such as bromine and iodine, need one more electron to reach an octet, so they can form...

vsepr theory

Molecular Shapes from Electron Pairs

Molecular shape can be predicted from the way electron pairs arrange around a central atom. Valence shell electron-pair repulsion theory, or VSEPR theory, uses a Lewis structure to count bonding pairs and lone electron pairs. The main idea is simple: electron pairs spread out as far as possible to reduce repulsion. In a molecule, the valence electrons around the central atom can be bonding pairs or lone pairs. Bonding pairs are found mainly between bonded atoms. Lone pairs stay on one atom and...

molecular geometry and dipole moments

Predicting Shape and Molecular Polarity

Molecular shape and molecular polarity can be predicted with VSEPR theory and dipole moments. Start by writing the Lewis structure of the molecule or polyatomic ion. Then count the electron groups around the central atom. Lone pairs and bonds both count as electron groups, and a single, double, or triple bond each counts as one region of electron density. Use that count to identify the electron-pair geometry. Next, use the number of lone pairs to determine the molecular structure. If more than...

resonance and hybrid structures

Resonance in Nitrite and Carbonate Ions

Resonance explains why some Lewis structures do not match the measured properties of a molecule or ion. When two or more Lewis structures have the same atom arrangement, the real electron distribution is an average of the structures shown. The nitrite anion, NO2−, is one example. It can be drawn in two ways, with the N–O and N=O bonds in different places. If nitrite had one single bond and one double bond, the two bond lengths should be different, because a double bond is shorter and stronger...

valence bond theory and hybridized orbitals

valence-bond-theory-and-hybridized-orbitals

Covalent Bond Overlap and Orbital Hybridization

Covalent bonds form when orbitals on two atoms overlap and their single electrons pair up. The bond is stronger when the overlap is greater. Maximum overlap happens when the orbitals meet along a direct line between the two nuclei. A sigma bond, or σ bond, is the kind of covalent bond found in a single bond in a Lewis structure. In a σ bond, electron density is concentrated along the internuclear axis. A pi bond, or π bond, forms when two p orbitals overlap side by side. In a π bond, the...

mo theory and covalent bonding

Bond Order and Molecular Orbitals

Molecular orbital theory explains how electrons are arranged in molecules. It treats electron regions in a molecule much like atomic orbitals in an atom. A molecular orbital is the region of space where a valence electron is most likely to be found. Molecular orbitals form through the linear combination of atomic orbitals, or LCAO. When atomic wave functions combine in phase, they create regions with high electron density. When they combine out of phase, they create nodes, or regions with no...

intermolecular forces and physical properties

intermolecular-forces-and-physical-properties

How Intermolecular Forces Affect Matter

Intermolecular forces are the attractions between molecules, and they help explain how matter behaves. These forces influence melting points, boiling points, and whether substances mix with one another. Water has a much higher boiling point than hexane, which shows that water has stronger intermolecular forces. Three main kinds of intermolecular interactions are covered here. They include ion-dipole forces, dipole-dipole interactions, and van der Waals forces, which include London dispersion...

solubility

Why Some Substances Dissolve in Water

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introduction to functional groups

Functional Groups and Organic Molecules

Functional groups are groups of atoms with specific chemical properties that appear within organic molecules. They are sometimes shown as "R." These groups sit along the carbon backbone of macromolecules, which can form chains or rings of carbon atoms. Functional groups help functionalize a compound. That means they can give the molecule different physical and chemical properties. In organic chemistry, this change in group structure can strongly affect how a compound behaves. Common...

overview of advanced functional groups

Advanced Functional Groups in Organic Chemistry

Advanced functional groups are atom clusters in organic molecules that give those molecules specific chemical properties. They are sometimes shown as "R" in formulas. By changing the atoms attached to a carbon skeleton, a functional group can make a compound behave differently in physical and chemical reactions. This topic covers several major classes of organic compounds with advanced functional groups. Aromatic hydrocarbons include benzene. Phenol is another example and is also called...

key terms and concepts

Learn how Lewis structures show bonding, lone pairs, single, double, and triple bonds, and how to calculate formal charge in molecules and ions.

Lewis Structures, Bonds, and Formal Charge | JoVE K12

organic chemistry

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Formula Mass and Mole Concepts of Compounds

Formula Mass of Covalent Compounds

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Expressing Solution Concentration

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Determining the Mass Percent Composition in an Aqueous Solution

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Solutions and Concentrations

Source: Laboratory of Dr. Michael Evans &#8212; Georgia Institute of Technology
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Reaction Stoichiometry

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stoichiometry-product-yield-and-limiting-reactants

Stoichiometry, Product Yield, and Limiting Reactants

Chemical equations represent how a chemical reaction proceeds from reactants to products through physical or chemical change using chemical formulas.
...

Understand and be prepared to use values specific to chemical processes: the mole, molar mass, molarity, and percent composition. EXPLANATION: During the early and mid-1800s, a tremendous amount of early research poured into building an understanding of the way that atoms combine. This work required analysis of the percent composition of different substances. Joseph Proust's work with tin oxides led him to publish his law of definite proportions noting that a given pure substance will have a constant ratio for the combination of elements making up the substance. Building on Proust's work, John Dalton published his law of multiple proportions and atomic theory noting that multiple patterns exist for the way that atoms combine, yet the combining atoms are invariable. Meanwhile Amedeo Avogadro hypothesizes that given equal pressures and temperatures, two equal volumes of gas will contain equal numbers of atoms. Acknowledging that the exact number of atoms was unknown in these gaseous volumes, the Latin word "mole" was used. "Mole" translates to "lump" recognizing the ambiguous quantity of gas. A number of attempts have been undertaken historically to quantify the mole. Robert Millikan's oil drop experiment revealed the change of a single electron, which could then be divided into Faraday's Constant for the charge of a mole of electrons. Dividing the charge of a mole of electrons by the charge of a single electron yields the number of electrons in a mole, $6.022\times10^{\wedge}23$. Students should be familiar with how to translate between the given quantities. Student's first use atomism/Dalton's atomic theory in third grade noting that matter is made up of particles too small to be seen. This the first time where students will undertake the process of counting these invisible particles. Electrolysis of water provides a tangible experience to demonstrate the constituent parts of water, though the definite proportions of water may not be easily seen due to the solubility of the gasses produced. The concept of relative mass can be explored by comparing small groups of like items. For example, relative masses of beans can be compared with pinto, white, and black beans. If bags are created with equal numbers of like beans, students can develop a concept of why the smallest bean will have a relative mass of 1, analogous to hydrogen.

CHEM1.PS1.1

Chemical Equations

Chemical equations represent the identities and relative quantities of substances involved in a chemical reaction. The substances undergoing reaction are ...

The Atomic Theory of Matter

The earliest recorded discussion of the basic structure of matter comes from ancient Greek philosophers. Leucippus and Democritus argued that all matter ...

Chemical Reactions

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Balancing Redox Equations

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Demonstrate that atoms, and therefore mass, are conserved during a chemical reaction by balancing chemical reactions. EXPLANATION: Standard 7.PS1.4 explores the idea that chemical reactions are rearrangements of atoms, and students undertake the process of balancing chemical reactions with that standard in seventh grade. The introduction of molar masses in high school makes an explicit connection between the number of atoms, as previously investigated, and the actual masses of the atoms, permitting the collection of more concrete evidence for the conservation of mass in chemical reactions.

CHEM1.PS1.2

Reaction Yield

The theoretical yield of a reaction is the amount of product estimated to form based on the stoichiometry of the balanced chemical equation. The ...

A balanced chemical equation provides the information of chemical formulas of the reactants and products involved in the chemical change. A ...

Limiting Reactant

The relative amounts of reactants and products represented in a balanced chemical equation are often referred to as stoichiometric amounts. However, in ...

chemical-equilibria-systematic-approach-to-equilibrium-calculations

Chemical Equilibria: Systematic Approach to Equilibrium Calculations

In systems with multiple equilibria, the equilibrium calculations use a systematic approach involving a series of steps to make sure there are as many ...

Perform stoichiometric calculations involving the following relationships: mole- mole; mass-mass; mole-mass; mole- particle; and mass- particle. Show a qualitative understanding of the phenomenon of percent yield, limiting, and excess reagents in a chemical reaction through pictorial and conceptual examples. (states of matter liquid and solid; excluding volume of gasses). EXPLANATION: This standard builds on the idea that balancing chemical reactions provides evidence for conservation of mass and that the behavior of atoms follows predictable patterns. Students now have the opportunity to utilize this understanding as they perform and evaluate chemical reactions. (The concepts of limiting reagent and percent yield are presented; however, students are not expected to determine these values algebraically. Use of molar volume in stoichiometric processes is beyond the scope of this standard.)

CHEM1.PS1.3

Predicting Reaction Outcomes

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Introduction to Chemical Reactions

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Chemical Reactions in Aqueous Solutions

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Precipitation Reactions

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Oxidation-Reduction Reactions

Oxidation&ndash;Reduction Reactions

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Oxidation Numbers

In redox reactions, the transfer of electrons occurs between reacting species. Electron transfer is described by a hypothetical number called the ...

Acids, Bases and Neutralization Reactions

An acid-base reaction is one in which a hydrogen ion, H+, is transferred from one chemical species to another. Such reactions are of central importance to ...

Synthesis and Decomposition Reactions

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types-of-chemical-reactions-exchange-and-reversible

Types of Chemical Reactions: Exchange and Reversible

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Use the reactants in a chemical reaction to predict the products and identify reaction classes (synthesis, decomposition, combustion, single replacement, double replacement). EXPLANATION: Chemical reactions are rearrangements of atoms that follow predicable patterns. There are patterns both at the macroscopic level in the behavior of some of the reaction classes, as well as patterns in the rearrangements of the atoms underlying the reaction. Students should be able to predict the products of the reactions, which also requires the ability to recognize the general patterns for each type of reaction.

CHEM1.PS1.4

kinetic-molecular-theory-gas-laws-explain-properties-gas

Kinetic Molecular Theory and Gas Laws Explain Properties of Gas Molecules

The test of the kinetic molecular theory (KMT) and its postulates is its ability to explain and describe the behavior of a gas. The various gas laws ...

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Basic Postulates of Kinetic Molecular Theory: Particle Size, Energy, and Collision

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Ideal Gas Law

Derivation of the Ideal Gas Law
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Gas Laws: Boyle's, Gay-Lussac, Charles', Avogadro's, and Ideal Gas Law

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Kinetic Molecular Theory: Molecular Velocities, Temperature, and Kinetic Energy

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Kinetic Theory of an Ideal Gas

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applications-of-the-ideal-gas-law-molar-mass-density-and-volume

Applications of the Ideal Gas Law: Molar Mass, Density, and Volume

The volume occupied by one mole of a substance is its molar volume. The ideal gas law, PV = nRT, &nbsp;suggests that the volume of a given quantity of gas ...

Conduct investigations to explore and characterize the behavior of gasses (pressure, volume, and temperature), develop models to represent this behavior, and construct arguments to explain this behavior. Evaluate the relationship (qualitative and quantitatively) at STP between pressure and volume (Boyle's Law), temperature and volume (Charles' Law), temperature and pressure (Gay-Lussac Law) and moles and volume (Avogadro's Law), and evaluate and explain these relationships with respect to kinetic molecular theory. Be able to understand, establish, and predict the relationships between volume, temperature, and pressure using combined gas law both qualitatively and quantitatively. EXPLANATION: When exploring the behavior of gasses, it is important to consider experimental design. Experiments used to show the relationships between these sets of variables should include one independent and one dependent variable. Other variables should be held constant. Pressure should serve as the dependent variable because it cannot be manipulated directly. Avogadro's Law can be used to relate the amount of gas in two different containers in lieu of knowing actual number of gas particles in an individual container. Individual demonstrations can be performed to explore each of the different gas laws.

CHEM1.PS1.5

Ideal Gas Equation

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Source: Laboratory of Dr. Andreas Z&#252;ttel - Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology
The ideal gas law describes the behavior ...

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Real Gases: Effects of Intermolecular Forces and Molecular Volume Deriving Van der Waals Equation

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chemical-stoichiometry-gases-using-ideal-gas-law-to-determine

Chemical Stoichiometry and Gases: Using Ideal Gas Law to Determine Moles

Chemical stoichiometry describes the quantitative relationships between reactants and products in chemical reactions.

In addition to measuring quantities ...

pV-Diagrams

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Use the ideal gas law, PV = nRT, to algebraically evaluate the relationship among the number of moles, volume, pressure, and temperature for ideal gases. EXPLANATION: If students have collected data during investigations for CHEM1.PS1.5, these data can then be used to linearize. With pressure assigned as the dependent variable and plotted against (moles) (temperature)/volume, the slope of the graph will be the gas constant, yielding the ideal gas law. After developing the mathematical model, this model can be used to make predictions for other systems.

CHEM1.PS1.6

Separation of Mixtures via Precipitation

Source: Laboratory of Dr. Ana J. Garc&#237;a-S&#225;ez &#8212; University of T&#252;bingen
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States of Matter and Phase Changes

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Distillation: Vapor&ndash;Liquid Equilibria

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Filtration

Filtration is the physical separation of solids from a fluid using a filtration medium.
The filtration medium is chosen depending on the purpose of ...

Centrifugation

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...

Sublimation

Sublimation is the direct phase transformation from the solid to the gaseous phase, bypassing the liquid state.
For example, solid carbon dioxide, or dry ...

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Recrystallization: Solid&ndash;Solution Equilibria

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Precipitation and Co-precipitation

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When different ions form sparingly soluble salts with the same ...

Electrodeposition

During electrodeposition, ions are separated from a solution by deposition on an electrode in an electrolytic cell.
While reduction occurs at the cathode ...

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Extraction: Partition and Distribution Coefficients

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Extraction: Effects of pH

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While organic bases are usually more ...

Extraction: Advanced Methods

Metal ions can be separated by complexation with organic ligands to form uncharged chelates.
The chelating agent must contain hydrophobic groups and ...

Chromatography: Introduction

Chromatography is a technique used to separate compounds based on differences of partitioning between two phases, the stationary phase and the mobile ...

Dialysis

Dialysis separates desired analyte ions or molecules from unwanted molecules, or &#39;interferents&#39;, by allowing the sample solution to diffuse ...

Analyze solutions to identify solutes and solvents, quantitatively analyze concentrations (molarity, percent composition, and ppm), and perform separation methods such as evaporation, distillation, and/or chromatography and show conceptual understanding of distillation. Construct argument to justify the use of certain separation methods under different conditions. EXPLANATION: In seventh grade, students developed an understanding that chemical and physical properties of a sample of matter could be used to identify a substance. Building on this understanding, students now explore the use of these physical and chemical properties to separate mixtures. Analysis of the substances is performed to aid in further discussion and facilitate further quantitative analysis.

CHEM1.PS1.7

Lewis Structures, Bonds, and Formal Charge

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