Name: stages of cell division in eukaryotes
Uploaded: 2025-05-22T09:05:47.000Z
Duration: 1 min 35 s
Channel: JoVE

K12 Standards

Pennsylvania State Academic Standards

9-12

Life Science

Inheritance and Variation of Traits

3.1.9-12.D

Mitosis and Cytokinesis

La mitosi è una forma di divisione cellulare in cui il materiale genetico di una cellula viene suddiviso tra due cellule figlie. 
In primo luogo, durante la profase, la cromatina nucleica si condensa in cromosomi a forma di X composti da coppie di cromatidi fratelli attaccati alle giunzioni del centromero.
Contemporaneamente, i centrosomi migrano verso i lati opposti delle cellule. Mentre lo fanno, i bastoncelli dei microtubuli iniziano a crescere da ciascuno, formando un apparato fuso simile a una ragnatela.
Successivamente, l'involucro nucleare si dissolve durante la prometafase e le strutture proteiche, chiamate cinetocore, appaiono su entrambi i lati dei centromeri, una per ogni cromatina.
Una volta che questi cinetocori si formano, i microtubuli interni che si estendono si fissano ad essi, con ogni cromatide fratello legato a un diverso polo cellulare.
In metafase, l'apparato del fuso riorganizza i cromosomi in modo che siano orientati in una fila fissa lungo l'equatore della cellula.
Con l'anafase, i microtubuli afissi del cinetocore si accorciano e i cromatidi fratelli vengono allontanati. Queste e altre dinamiche dei microtubuli allungano anche la cellula.
Durante la telofase, l'apparato del fuso si scioglie, i cromatidi si allentano e gli inviluppi nucleari si riformano.
Infine, la cellula viene divisa citoplasmaticamente mediante citochinesi, formando una coppia di cellule geneticamente identiche al loro precursore.

<ol>
	<li>Guertin, David A., Susanne Trautmann e Dannel McCollum. "Citocinesi negli eucarioti". Microbiol. Mol. Biol. Rev. 66, n. 2 (1 giugno 2002): 155–78.</li>
</ol>

mitosi e citocinesi

Negli eucarioti, il ciclo di divisione cellulare è suddiviso in processi cellulari distinti e coordinati che includono la crescita cellulare, la replicazione del DNA/duplicazione cromosomica, la distribuzione dei cromosomi alle cellule figlie e, infine, la divisione cellulare. Il ciclo cellulare è strettamente regolato dai suoi sistemi regolatori e dai segnali extracellulari che influenzano la proliferazione cellulare.

I processi del ciclo cellulare si verificano nell'arco di circa 24 ore (nelle cellule umane tipiche) e in due fasi principali distinguibili. Il primo stadio è la replicazione del DNA, durante la fase S dell'interfase. La seconda fase è la fase mitotica (M), che prevede la separazione dei cromosomi duplicati in due nuovi nuclei (mitosi) e la divisione citoplasmatica (citocinesi). Le due fasi sono separate da intervalli (gap G1 e G2), durante i quali la cellula si prepara alla replicazione e alla divisione.

Il processo di mitosi

La mitosi può essere divisa in cinque fasi distinte: profase, prometafase, metafase, anafase e telofase. La citocinesi, che inizia durante l'anafase o la telofase (a seconda della cellula), fa parte della fase M ma non della mitosi.

Profase

Quando la cellula entra nella mitosi, i suoi cromosomi replicati iniziano a condensarsi e diventano visibili come strutture filiformi con l'aiuto di proteine note come condensine. L'apparato del fuso mitotico inizia a formarsi tra i centrosomi – che sono stati duplicati durante la fase S – e migra verso i poli opposti della cellula. Il fuso è costituito da strutture filamentose chiamate microtubuli costituiti da monomeri proteici di tubulina. I microtubuli del fuso iniziano ad estendersi verso i cromosomi condensati. Il nucleolo, un componente del nucleo che produce ribosomi, svanisce, indicando l'imminente rottura del nucleo.

Prometafase

Durante la prometafase, i filamenti dei microtubuli dell'apparato del fuso continuano a crescere e i cromosomi finiscono di condensarsi. L'involucro nucleare si rompe completamente, liberando i cromosomi. Alcuni microtubuli si attaccano ai cromosomi rilasciati, legandosi a una struttura proteica chiamata cinetocore che è presente sul centromero di ciascuna coppia di cromatidi fratelli. I microtubuli del fuso provenienti dai poli opposti si attaccano ai cinetocori e catturano le coppie di cromatidi fratelli condensati. I microtubuli del fuso che non si attaccano ai cromosomi (microtubuli polari e astrali) aiutano a separare i fusi e ad ancorare i poli del fuso alla membrana cellulare.

Metafase

I microtubuli del fuso allineano ciascuna coppia di cromatidi fratelli completamente condensati lungo l'equatore della cellula, nella placca metafase. La cellula è ora pronta per dividersi.

Anafase

I microtubuli dei poli opposti del fuso, che sono attaccati alla struttura del cinetocore, accorciano e separano i cromatidi fratelli nel centromero. Le proteine di coesione che tengono insieme i cromatidi ora si rompono. L’accorciamento dei microtubuli del cinetocore fa sì che ciascun cromatide della coppia, ora chiamato cromosomi, migri verso un polo opposto.

Telofase

Una volta che i cromosomi raggiungono i poli opposti della cellula, si decondensano e si srotolano per formare cromatina. I filamenti dei microtubuli del fuso si depolimerizzano nei loro monomeri di tubulina, che vengono poi utilizzati come elementi citoscheletrici nelle cellule figlie. Gli involucri nucleari si ricompongono attorno a ciascun insieme di cromosomi.

Citocinesi

Durante la citocinesi nelle cellule animali, i filamenti di actina formano un anello contrattile nella membrana plasmatica per creare un solco di scissione, che alla fine pizzica la cellula in due. Nelle cellule vegetali, le vescicole dell'apparato di Golgi che trasportano glucosio, enzimi e proteine strutturali si uniscono per formare una nuova placca cellulare nella posizione della precedente placca metafasica. La piastra cellulare in crescita si fonde con le membrane plasmatiche su ciascun lato, formando infine una nuova parete cellulare che divide la cellula in due.

La mitosi è ora completa e genera due cellule figlie identiche alla cellula madre. Nella maggior parte delle cellule umane, la mitosi rappresenta circa un'ora delle circa 24 ore del ciclo cellulare.

Mitosi e citocinesi

Negli eucarioti, il ciclo di divisione cellulare è suddiviso in processi cellulari distinti e coordinati che includono la crescita cellulare, la replicazione del DNA/cromosoma ...

Education

Didattica

JoVE Core

Cell Biology

Biologia cellulare

Unit 1

Unità 1

Cell Division

Divisione cellulare

KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS

TERMINI E CONCETTI CHIAVE

stages of cell division in eukaryotes

Cell division in eukaryotes follows a tightly regulated cycle that includes cell growth, DNA replication, chromosome duplication, chromosome distribution to daughter cells, and cell division. Regulatory systems and extracellular signals help control when cells divide. In typical human cells, the cycle takes about 24 hours.

The cycle has two major stages. DNA is copied during the S phase of interphase. The mitotic, or M, phase then separates the duplicated chromosomes into two new nuclei and divides the cytoplasm. G1 and G2 gaps come between these stages and give the cell time to prepare for replication and division.

Mitosis is the part of the M phase that separates the nucleus into two sets of chromosomes. It has five stages: prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. Cytokinesis, the division of the cytoplasm, starts during anaphase or telophase depending on the cell, but it is not part of mitosis.

During prophase, the replicated chromosomes condense and become visible as threadlike structures with the help of condensins, which are proteins that help package chromosomes. The mitotic spindle begins to form between the centrosomes, which were duplicated in S phase, and the centrosomes move to opposite poles of the cell. The spindle is made of microtubules, which are filaments built from tubulin protein monomers, and these microtubules grow toward the chromosomes. The nucleolus disappears, showing that the nucleus is about to break down.

In prometaphase, the chromosomes finish condensing and the nuclear envelope breaks down completely. This releases the chromosomes into the cell. Some spindle microtubules attach to a protein structure called the kinetochore at the centromere of each sister chromatid pair. Microtubules from opposite poles capture the chromatids, while polar and astral microtubules help push the spindle poles apart and anchor them to the cell membrane.

During metaphase, the spindle microtubules line up each pair of fully condensed sister chromatids at the metaphase plate, or the cell equator. This alignment prepares the cell for division. In anaphase, the kinetochore microtubules shorten, the cohesion proteins holding the chromatids together break down, and the sister chromatids separate at the centromere. Each chromatid then moves to an opposite pole and is now considered a chromosome.

In telophase, the chromosomes reach the poles, decondense, and uncoil into chromatin. The spindle microtubules depolymerize into tubulin monomers, which can be used again as cytoskeletal elements in the daughter cells. New nuclear envelopes then form around each set of chromosomes.

Cytokinesis completes cell division in different ways in animal and plant cells. In animal cells, actin filaments form a contractile ring in the plasma membrane and create a cleavage furrow that pinches the cell in two. In plant cells, vesicles from the Golgi apparatus carrying glucose, enzymes, and structural proteins join to form a new cell plate at the former metaphase plate. The cell plate fuses with the plasma membranes and becomes a new cell wall. Mitosis is then complete, producing two daughter cells identical to the parent cell. In most human cells, this process takes about one hour of the full cell cycle.

Stages of Cell Division in Eukaryotes

mitosis and cytokinesis

Cell division in eukaryotes follows a tightly regulated cycle that includes cell growth, DNA replication, chromosome duplication, chromosome distribution to daughter cells, and cell division. Regulatory systems and extracellular signals help control when cells divide. In typical human cells, the cycle takes about 24 hours. The cycle has two major stages. DNA is copied during the S phase of interphase. The mitotic, or M, phase then separates the duplicated chromosomes into two new nuclei and...

chromosome duplication

Chromosome Copying in Cell Division

Chromosome copying is an important step in cell division. Before a cell divides, it must make an exact copy of its chromosomes so each new cell can receive the same genetic information. A chromosome is a DNA-containing structure that carries genes. During duplication, the chromosome is copied into two identical sister chromatids. These copies stay attached until the cell is ready to separate them. This process helps ensure that daughter cells inherit a complete set of chromosomes. Accurate...

cohesins

Cohesins in Sister Chromatid Separation

Cohesins are protein complexes that help hold sister chromatids together after DNA is copied. They play a key role in cell division by keeping the two copies of a chromosome connected until the right time. These proteins act like a link between the sister chromatids. When the cell is ready to separate them, cohesins must be removed or released so each new cell can get one complete set of chromosomes. Cohesins are an important part of chromosome behavior during mitosis and meiosis. Their...

condensins

Condensin Proteins in Chromosome Packing

Condensin proteins help pack DNA into condensed chromosomes during cell division. They are part of the larger set of proteins that organize genetic material so it can be separated correctly when a cell divides. These proteins act by shaping and tightening chromosome structure. This process is important because DNA must be compacted before it can move through the stages of division. Condensins are therefore closely linked to chromosome condensation, the step that makes chromosomes more compact...

the mitotic spindle

How the Mitotic Spindle Guides Cell Division

The mitotic spindle guides chromosome movement during cell division. It is a structure made of microtubules, which are thin protein fibers in the cell. These fibers organize and help separate the genetic material before the cell splits. The spindle forms as the cell prepares to divide. Its fibers attach to chromosomes and line them up so they can be moved apart in an orderly way. This careful organization helps each new cell receive the correct set of chromosomes. The mitotic spindle is a key...

centrosome duplication

Centrosome Duplication in Cell Division

Centrosome duplication is an important step in cell division. The centrosome helps organize the cell’s internal structure, and it must be copied before a cell divides.

spindle assembly

Spindle Formation in Cell Division

Spindle formation in cell division is the process that builds the microtubule-based spindle needed to separate chromosomes. Microtubules are long protein fibers that help move and organize cell parts during division. During this process, microtubules grow and are arranged into a spindle structure around the chromosomes. The spindle forms in a way that supports chromosome movement to opposite sides of the cell. This step is essential for accurate cell division. Spindle formation depends on the...

attachment of sister chromatids

Sister Chromatid Attachment in Mitosis

Sister chromatid attachment in mitosis helps align duplicated chromosomes before they separate. Sister chromatids are the matching copies made after DNA replication. They stay connected until the cell is ready to divide. The attachment step is closely tied to the metaphase plate, the middle of the cell where chromosomes line up. This alignment helps each new cell receive one copy of every chromosome. Proper attachment is an important part of accurate cell division.

forces acting on chromosomes

Chromosome Movement During Cell Division

Chromosome movement during cell division depends on forces that act on the chromosomes. These forces help move the chromosomes into the right position as the cell divides. The transcript focuses on how these forces affect chromosome behavior during division. It highlights the role of the mitotic spindle, which is the structure that helps organize and move chromosomes. The spindle uses force to guide chromosome movement at the right time. Understanding these forces helps explain how...

separation of sister chromatids

Chromatid Pulling in Cell Division

Separation of sister chromatids is a key step in cell division. Sister chromatids are two identical copies of a chromosome that stay attached until the cell is ready to split them apart. Their separation helps each new cell receive the correct genetic material. During this stage, the sister chromatids are pulled to opposite sides of the cell. This movement happens as the cell prepares to divide into two daughter cells. Once the chromatids separate, each side of the cell has a complete set of...

the spindle assembly checkpoint

How Cells Verify Chromosome Spindle Attachment

The spindle assembly checkpoint helps cells verify that chromosomes are attached to the spindle before division continues. It acts as a safety step during cell division and helps prevent errors in chromosome separation. This checkpoint is controlled by kinetochores, which are protein structures on chromosomes that connect to spindle fibers. If a chromosome is not attached correctly, the checkpoint can delay progression until the problem is fixed. Once the attachment is correct, the cell can...

anaphase a and b

Chromosome and Spindle Movement in Anaphase

Anaphase is the stage of cell division when chromosomes move apart. In this phase, sister chromatids separate and travel toward opposite poles of the cell. Chromosome movement in anaphase can happen in two ways. In anaphase A, chromosomes move closer to the poles as the microtubules attached to them shorten. In anaphase B, the spindle poles themselves move farther apart and help stretch the cell. These two movements work together to ensure that the separated chromosomes are pulled to opposite...

anaphase promoting complex

Cell Cycle Control by APC

The anaphase-promoting complex, or APC, helps control cell cycle progression. It acts during cell division to help move the process from one stage to the next. This control is important for proper timing in the cell cycle. APC is a protein complex that works as a regulator. It helps trigger key steps that allow division to continue in an ordered way. By guiding this transition, APC supports normal cell cycle control.

the contractile ring

Cell Division and the Contractile Ring

The contractile ring helps cells divide at the end of cell division. It forms at the cell's center and tightens to split one cell into two. This process is part of cytokinesis, the stage when the cytoplasm divides. The ring is made of actin and myosin, two proteins that can work together to create force. As the ring contracts, it draws the cell membrane inward. This pinch helps separate the two daughter cells. Understanding the contractile ring is important for studying how cells complete...

determining the plane of cell division

Spindle Position and Cell Division Plane

The plane of cell division is set by the position of the spindle during mitosis. Cells use this internal structure to help decide where the cell will split. The result affects how the two daughter cells are arranged after division. This process is important in many developing tissues. It helps explain how cells divide in a controlled direction. A clear plane of division supports proper cell organization as new cells form. The transcript focuses on how the spindle is used to determine that...

the phragmoplast

Phragmoplast in Plant Cell Division

The phragmoplast is a plant cell structure that forms during cell division. It helps guide the final stage of division, when the cell begins to split into two daughter cells. In plant cells, the phragmoplast appears between the two new nuclei. It is part of the process that leads to the formation of a new cell wall. This wall separates the daughter cells after division is complete. The phragmoplast plays an important role in plant cytokinesis, which is the physical division of the cytoplasm.

distribution of cytoplasmic content

Cytoplasmic Content During Cell Division

Cytoplasmic content is distributed as a cell divides. This process helps each new cell receive the materials it needs to function. The cytoplasm includes the fluid and structures inside the cell membrane, but outside the nucleus. During cell division, this content is separated between the two daughter cells. The division must be organized so both cells can continue normal activity after the split. The video focuses on how this distribution occurs as part of cell division. It highlights the...

key terms and concepts

Follow the stages of eukaryotic cell division from DNA replication to mitosis and cytokinesis, including spindle formation, chromosome separation, and cell plate formation.

Stages of Cell Division in Eukaryotes | JoVE K12

cell biology

JoVE Core Cell Biology illustrates complex cellular processes in easy-to-understand yet comprehensive animated video lessons. This collection focuses on the essential components and functions of cells, including organelles and membranes, cellular transport, and cell energetics. It is complemented by scientist-in-action videos that demonstrate the application of cell biology in real-world research experiments.

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3.1.1 9L.3.1.1.2

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Anaphase Promoting Complex

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3.1.9-12.P

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3.1.9-12.Q

Stages of Cell Division in Eukaryotes

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