Overall distribution of strains and patients
Based on the study criteria and grouping strategy described above, a total of 121 non-duplicate PA isolates from 121 patients were included in the analysis (Figure 1). The annual distribution was 31 isolates in 2023, 49 in 2024, and 41 in 2025 (Table 1). Sputum was the main specimen source, accounting for 83.5% of all samples (Figure 2). The Resp-TB contributed the largest proportion of isolates (n = 97/121, 80.17%), followed by the Digestive and Hepatology Department (n = 12/121, 9.92%), the Infectious Diseases Department (n = 5/121, 4.13%), and other departments (n = 7/121, 5.79%) (Table 2 and Figure 2).
The proportion of sputum specimens remained relatively stable across the study period: 82.9% in 2023, 83.5% in 2024, and 83.0% in 2025. Bronchoalveolar lavage fluid and protected specimen brush samples together accounted for approximately 7.6% of specimens, while blood, urine, and other sample types accounted for the remaining 8.9%. These findings indicate that PA isolates in this hospital were concentrated mainly in respiratory specimens.
Overall, PA isolates were concentrated among patients from the Resp-TB and among respiratory specimens. This distribution supported selecting the Resp-TB as the primary cohort for evaluating the targeted intervention described above.
Annual trends in antimicrobial resistance of Pseudomonas aeruginosa across the hospital
Based on the AST protocol described above, annual antimicrobial resistance patterns for PA are summarized in Table 1 and Figure 3. Because susceptibility and intermediate rates in Table 1 are weighted summary measures, formal comparisons were performed at the individual-antimicrobial level. The resulting p-values are presented in Table 3 for the 2023 versus 2025 comparison. Pearson’s χ2 test or Fisher’s exact test showed no statistically significant differences after Bonferroni correction (all adjusted p > 0.05; Table 3).
The weighted resistance rate was 4.25 percentage points lower in 2025 than in 2023, while the weighted susceptibility rate increased by 4.25 percentage points over the same period. However, these summary measures should be interpreted descriptively because they aggregate results across multiple antimicrobial agents. Antibiotic-specific trends are therefore reported separately in Table 3.
The intermediate rate increased slightly in 2025 after a lower value in 2024. This change should be interpreted cautiously because intermediate results may vary by antimicrobial agent and were categorized as resistant for resistance-rate calculations. Overall, PA resistance remained a surveillance concern throughout the study period, underscoring the need for ongoing antimicrobial stewardship and infection prevention and control.
Resistance profiles of major antibiotics
Building on the AST data described above, divergent resistance patterns among the 10 tested antimicrobial agents were observed over the three-year period, as detailed in Table 3 and illustrated in Figure 4 and Figure 5. Four descriptive resistance patterns were identified.
First, resistance to tobramycin, cefepime, and piperacillin-tazobactam decreased over the study period. Tobramycin resistance decreased from 3.23% in 2023 to 0.00% in 2025, cefepime resistance decreased from 12.90% to 2.44%, and piperacillin-tazobactam resistance decreased from 9.68% to 0.00%. By 2025, all three agents showed low resistance rates in this dataset (Figure 4). Second, amikacin resistance remained low, fluctuating between 0.00% and 4.08% over the three years. Third, carbapenem resistance increased in 2024 and then decreased in 2025. Meropenem resistance increased from 9.68% in 2023 to 18.37% in 2024, then decreased to 12.20% in 2025. Imipenem resistance increased from 12.90% to 24.49%, then decreased to 17.07%. These findings indicate a transient peak in carbapenem resistance in 2024. Fourth, fluoroquinolone resistance remained a concern. Ciprofloxacin resistance remained high throughout the study period, and levofloxacin resistance increased from 16.13% in 2023 to 36.59% in 2025. Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole resistance remained consistently high (>79%) across all three years. Annual comparisons of resistance rates for individual antibiotics are illustrated in Figure 5.
Overall, these findings show heterogeneous antibiotic-specific resistance patterns in PA isolates at this institution. The increase in levofloxacin resistance and the persistently high trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole resistance support continued antimicrobial stewardship monitoring.
Comparative analysis of antimicrobial resistance rates across three key departments
Based on the departmental stratification described above, resistance rates across the three main departments are summarized in Table 2 and Figure 6. The Resp-TB was the primary target of the intervention and had a high resistance rate throughout the study period: 74.19% in 2023 (23/31, 95% CI: 55.39–85.78%), 81.63% in 2024 (40/49, 95% CI: 67.98–89.76%), and 82.93% in 2025 (34/41, 95% CI: 67.94–91.18%). No statistically significant reduction was observed (Cochran–Armitage linear trend test, Z = 0.89, p ≈ 0.37; Fisher’s exact test for 2023 versus 2025, p ≈ 0.37). These findings do not support a clear temporal association between the intervention and a reduction in departmental resistance.
The Infectious Diseases Department had a few isolates across the study period (n = 5). The corresponding rates were 6.45% in 2023 (2/31), 4.08% in 2024 (2/49), and 2.44% in 2025 (1/41). Because of the small number of isolates, these results should be interpreted cautiously and are not suitable for robust trend analysis.
The Digestive and Hepatology Department also had a small number of isolates (n = 12). The reported rates were 0.00% in 2023, 55.56% in 2024, and 0.00% in 2025. This fluctuation likely reflects the small annual sample sizes, in which a small number of resistant isolates can strongly influence percentage estimates.
Overall, the Resp-TB accounted for most PA isolates and maintained high rates of resistance throughout the study period. The smaller departmental groups had limited sample sizes, reducing the reliability of cross-departmental comparisons. Annual departmental trends are shown in Figure 6.
Targeted intervention in the Resp-TB
Following implementation of the four-dimensional linkage-targeted intervention in January 2024, the departmental proportion reported for the Resp-TB did not decline as hypothesized (Figure 6). The reported value was 74.19% in 2023, 81.63% in 2024, and 82.93% in 2025, with no statistically significant reduction (Cochran–Armitage linear trend test, Z = 0.89, p ≈ 0.37; Fisher’s exact test for 2023 versus 2025, p ≈ 0.37; Table 2 and Figure 6). For descriptive context, the annual departmental values were plotted alongside Chinese multicenter and international reference values from previous surveillance reports (Figure 7)15,16. These external reference values are presented solely to provide contextual information and are not directly comparable with the present dataset because the studies differed in their definitions of resistance, patient populations, sampling strategies, isolate de-duplication procedures, and antimicrobial panels. Therefore, Figure 7 should not be interpreted as demonstrating a significant reduction, cumulative reduction, convergence toward an external benchmark, achievement of a target, or effectiveness of the intervention.
Antibiotic-specific patterns varied. Tobramycin resistance remained low, with no resistant isolates detected in 2025. Cefepime resistance decreased from 12.90% in 2023 to 2.44% in 2025. In contrast, levofloxacin resistance increased from 5/31 (16.13%) in 2023 to 11/49 (22.45%) in 2024 and 15/41 (36.59%) in 2025, despite the restriction of levofloxacin use as part of the intervention. This increase may reflect cross-selective pressure from fluoroquinolone-containing antituberculosis regimens, although the absence of prescription data limits direct assessment of the intervention’s effect on prescribing behavior. Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole resistance remained consistently high: 96.77% in 2023, 79.59% in 2024, and 92.68% in 2025.
Overall, the annual departmental proportion in the Resp-TB remained high throughout the study period, and the available data did not demonstrate a clear intervention-associated reduction. Nevertheless, the antibiotic-specific findings—including the low resistance to tobramycin and cefepime and the increasing resistance to levofloxacin—may inform continued local antimicrobial resistance surveillance and stewardship monitoring. Because this study lacked patient-level antimicrobial consumption data, contemporaneous control departments, and adjustment for changes in patient case mix, no causal relationship between the four-dimensional intervention and the observed resistance patterns should be inferred.
Summary of findings in relation to the study hypothesis
This study hypothesized that implementation of the four-dimensional linkage-targeted antimicrobial stewardship intervention would be associated with reduced Pseudomonas aeruginosa resistance in the Resp-TB. However, the departmental resistance rate did not decline after intervention: 74.19% in 2023, 81.63% in 2024, and 82.93% in 2025, with no statistically significant reduction (Cochran–Armitage linear trend test, Z = 0.89,p ≈ 0.37; Table 2 and Figure 6). These findings do not support the study hypothesis at the departmental level. Antibiotic-specific trends varied, with low resistance to tobramycin, cefepime, and piperacillin-tazobactam by 2025, while levofloxacin resistance increased to 36.59% (Table 3, Figure 4, and Figure 5).
DATA AVAILABILITY:
The raw datasets underlying all figures and tables in this article are provided as Supplemental Table S1, Supplemental Table S2, and Supplemental Table S3.

Figure 1. Overall study design schematic. The schematic summarizes specimen collection, culture, bacterial identification, antimicrobial susceptibility testing, quality control, de-duplication, intervention timing, and outcome assessment in this single-center retrospective surveillance study. Respiratory and other clinical specimens were cultured, presumptive identification was based on colony morphology and oxidase testing, and definitive identification and AST were performed using an automated microbiology system. MIC results were interpreted according to CLSI M100, 33rd edition. Daily quality control used Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC 27853. A one-patient–one-isolate-per-calendar-year deduplication rule was applied. The pre-intervention period was 2023, and the post-intervention period was 2024–2025. Abbreviations: AST = antimicrobial susceptibility testing; CLSI = Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute; MIC = minimum inhibitory concentration. Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.

Figure 2. Composition of Pseudomonas aeruginosa isolates by specimen type and department, 2023–2025. The figure shows the distribution of isolates by specimen source and clinical department. (A) Number and proportion of isolates by specimen source, including sputum, BALF, blood, urine, and other sources. (B) Number and proportion of isolates by clinical department. Abbreviations: BALF = bronchoalveolar lavage fluid; GI-Hep = Digestive and Hepatology Department; ID = Infectious Diseases Department; Resp-TB = Respiratory and Tuberculosis Department. Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.

Figure 3. Annual antimicrobial susceptibility profile of Pseudomonas aeruginosa isolates, 2023–2025. Bars show the annual proportions of resistant, susceptible, and intermediate results across the tested antimicrobial agents. Formal antibiotic-specific statistical comparisons are provided in Table 2. Abbreviations: I = intermediate; R = resistant; S = susceptible. Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.

Figure 4. Resistance rates of Pseudomonas aeruginosa to major antimicrobial agents in 2025. Antibiotics are ranked by resistance rate in 2025. The dashed reference line indicates the weighted summary resistance rate for the tested antimicrobial agents. No clinical recommendation categories are implied. Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.

Figure 5. Annual resistance rates of Pseudomonas aeruginosa to five selected antimicrobial agents, 2023–2025. Bars show annual resistance rates for tobramycin, cefepime, piperacillin-tazobactam, levofloxacin, and trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole. Formal statistical comparisons are provided in Table 2 and described in the Results section. Abbreviation: PA = Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.

Figure 6. Annual departmental distribution of Pseudomonas aeruginosa isolates, 2023–2025. The figure compares the annual proportion of isolates contributed by three clinical departments. The red solid line denotes the Resp-TB, the intervention target department. The blue dashed line denotes the Infectious Diseases Department. The yellow dotted line denotes the Digestive and Hepatology Department. Abbreviations: ID = Infectious Diseases Department; Resp-TB = Respiratory and Tuberculosis Department. Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.

Figure 7. Descriptive presentation of annual departmental values alongside external antimicrobial-resistance reference values. The figure descriptively presents the annual values reported for the Resp-TB together with reference values from a Chinese multicenter surveillance study and an international tertiary-hospital study15,16. The red solid line denotes the annual value for the Resp-TB. The gray bar represents 2023, whereas the blue bars represent 2024 and 2025. The green dashed line denotes the Chinese multicenter reference value, and the purple dotted line denotes the international reference value. These external reference values are presented solely for descriptive context and are not directly comparable with the present data because the underlying studies differed in their definitions of resistance, study populations, sampling strategies, isolate de-duplication procedures, and antimicrobial panels. Accordingly, the figure should not be interpreted as demonstrating a statistically significant reduction, cumulative reduction, convergence toward an external benchmark, achievement of a predetermined target, or effectiveness of the intervention. Abbreviations: PA = Pseudomonas aeruginosa; Resp-TB = Respiratory and Tuberculosis Department. Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.
| Indicator | 2023 (n=31) | 2024 (n=49) | 2025 (n=41) | Trend |
| Numbers of patients/isolates | 31/31 | 49/49 | 41/41 | Initial increase followed by a decrease |
| Overall susceptibility rate (%) | 46.31 | 47.6 | 50.56 | Continuously increase |
| Intermediate rate (%) | 7.26 | 5.62 | 8.3 | Slight fluctuation |
| Resistant rate (%) | 46.44% | 46.78% | 41.14% | Slight fluctuation |
Table 1: Overall antimicrobial susceptibility profile of non-duplicate Pseudomonas aeruginosa isolates, 2023–2025. The table summarizes annual weighted percentages of resistant, susceptible, and intermediate AST results across the tested antimicrobial agents. These summary percentages are descriptive and are not derived from a single binomial denominator; therefore, Pearson’s χ2 p-values are not applicable at this summary level. Antibiotic-specific statistical comparisons are provided in Table 2. Abbreviations: AST = antimicrobial susceptibility testing; I = intermediate; R = resistant; S = susceptible. These are descriptive weighted summary measures, not patient-level resistance rates.
| Department | 2023 (N=31) | 2024 (N=49) | 2025 (N=41) | Total (N=121) |
| Respiratory-TB Department | 23/31 (74.19%) | 40/49 (81.63%) | 34/41 (82.93%) | 97 (80.17%) |
| Digestive & Hepatology Dept. | 4/31 (12.90%) | 5/49 (10.20%) | 3/41 (7.32%) | 12 (9.92%) |
| Infectious Diseases Department | 2/31 (6.45%) | 2/49 (4.08%) | 1/41 (2.44%) | 5 (4.13%) |
| Others | 2/31 (6.45%) | 2/49 (4.08%) | 3/41 (7.32%) | 7 (5.79%) |
| Total | 31/31 (100.00%) | 49/49 (100.00%) | 41/41 (100.00%) | 121 (100.00%) |
Table 2: Distribution of Pseudomonas aeruginosa isolates by department, 2023–2025. Values are presented as n/N (%), where n is the number of isolates from the specified department and year, and N is the total number of isolates that year. The unit of analysis is the isolate after application of the one-patient–one-isolate-per-calendar-year deduplication rule. The Resp-TB was the primary observation cohort for the four-dimensional linkage-targeted intervention. Abbreviations: GI-Hep = Digestive and Hepatology Department; ID = Infectious Diseases Department; PA = Pseudomonas aeruginosa; Resp-TB = Respiratory and Tuberculosis Department.
| Antimicrobial agent | 2023 (N=31) | 2024 (N=49) | 2025 (N=41) | P value* |
| Tobramycin | 1/31 (3.23) | 1/49 (2.04) | 0/41 (0.00) | ns |
| Cefepime | 4/31 (12.90) | 3/49 (6.12) | 1/41 (2.44) | ns |
| Piperacillin/Tazobactam | 3/31 (9.68) | 3/49 (6.12) | 0/41 (0.00) | ns |
| Levofloxacin | 5/31 (16.13) | 11/49 (22.45) | 15/41 (36.59) | ns |
| Trimethoprim/Sulfamethoxazole | 30/31 (96.77) | 39/49 (79.59) | 38/41 (92.68) | ns |
| Meropenem | 3/31 (9.68) | 9/49 (18.37) | 5/41 (12.20) | ns |
| Imipenem | 4/31 (12.90) | 12/49 (24.49) | 7/41 (17.07) | ns |
| Gentamicin | 2/31 (6.45) | 6/49 (12.24) | 2/41 (4.88) | ns |
| Amikacin | 0/31 (0.00) | 2/49 (4.08) | 1/41 (2.44) | ns |
| Cefazolin | 6/31 (19.35) | 10/49 (20.41) | 4/41 (9.76) | ns |
Table 3: Annual resistance rates of Pseudomonas aeruginosa to 10 antimicrobial agents, 2023–2025. Values are presented as R/n (%), where R is the number of resistant isolates and n is the number of tested isolates for each antimicrobial agent and year. p-values compare 2023 versus 2025 using Fisher’s exact test. The Bonferroni-adjusted significance threshold was α = 0.005. The 95% confidence intervals were calculated using the Clopper–Pearson exact method. Denominators reflect the annual de-duplicated isolate counts unless incomplete antimicrobial panels require antibiotic-specific denominators. De-duplication was performed using a one-patient–one-isolate-per-calendar-year rule, with the first isolate retained. Abbreviations: CI = confidence interval; TMP-SMX = trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole. ns = not significant.
Supplemental Table S1: Analysis of microbiological bacterial specimen data; reporting period: January 01, 2023 00:00:00 – December 31, 2023 23:59:59. Please click here to download this file.
Supplemental Table S2: Analysis of microbiological bacterial specimen data; reporting period: January 01, 2024 00:00:00 – December 31, 2024 23:59:59. Please click here to download this file.
Supplemental Table S3: Analysis of microbiological bacterial specimen data; reporting period: January 01, 2025 00:00:00 – December 31, 2025 23:59:59. Please click here to download this file.