Name: organic molecules in everyday chemistry
Uploaded: 2020-09-03T13:38:26.000Z
Duration: 3 min 2 s
Channel: JoVE

K12 Standards

north-carolina-k-12-science-standard-course-of-study

NC K-12 Science Standard Course of Study

9-12

Chemistry

Matter and its Interactions

PS.Chm.3.3

Organic Compounds

水素 酸素 窒素 硫黄原子に炭素原子が 結合した化合物を 主成分とする化合物を 有機化合物と呼びます 有機化合物は DNAや植物の細胞壁のような 生命の基本的な構成要素から エネルギーを解放する物質まで 多種多様な分子を 形成しています それらは通常 簡単に分解されます 炭素原子はすべての有機化合物の 骨格を構成しており 炭素の多様性のために 単結合 二重結合 三重結合のいずれかで 4つの結合を形成するために リング状 分岐 あるいは 直鎖の配列を持つ 多様な構造を 想定することができます 有機化合物には 炭化水素または 官能基炭化水素があります 炭化水素は 炭素原子と 水素原子のみで 構成されています アルカンは単結合を含む 炭化水素です アルケンは1つ以上の 二重結合を含み 一方 アルキンは1つ以上の 三重結合を含んでいます 炭化水素の命名法は 炭素原子の数によって 決定される接頭辞を使用して 最初に言及される パターンに従います 名前の最後には 一重 二重 または 三重結合の存在に応じて それぞれ-ane ene または yneという接尾辞が 付けられます 例えば 3つの炭素原子を持つ 単結合を含むアルカンは プロパンである 二重結合を含む 炭素数３個の アルケンはプロペンであり 三重結合を含む 炭素数３個のアルキンは プロピンです また その水素原子の １個以上が特定の 原子群または官能基で 置換された炭化水素は 官能化炭化水素と呼ばれる 官能化炭化水素の一般式は R」の文字で 炭化水素部分を指定し 特定の官能基を指定します 官能基には多くの種類があり 特定の物理的および 化学的特性を有します 共通の官能基を有する すべての有機化合物は 炭化水素の同じファミリーに属し 類似の特性を示し 類似の命名法に従います 例えば OH官能基を有する すべての有機化合物は アルコールと呼ばれています この命名法では アルコール官能基に 特有の接尾辞-olで 終わる親アルカン基名を 言及しています したがって OH官能基を持つ プロパンは プロパノールと呼ばれます 対照的に カルボキシル官能基を持つ すべての有機化合物は カルボン酸と呼ばれます 命名法では カルボキシル官能基に 固有の接尾辞 oic acidで終わる 親アルカン基名を記載しています したがって カルボキシル 官能基を持つプロパンは プロピオニックアシッドと 命名されます

有機化合物

すべての生きている生物はほとんど有機化合物と呼ばれる炭素化合物から作られます。 有機化合物のカテゴリーには、炭素を含む天然化合物と合成化合物の両方が含まれます。 化学界では、単一の正確な定義はまだ定まっていませんが、有機分子を特徴づける定義は、炭素が主要元素であり、それが水素やその他の炭素原子に結合されているということです。 ただし、炭酸塩、シアン化物、単純酸化物（ CO および CO2 ）などの炭素含有化合物の中には、有機化合物に分類されないものもあります。  
 
 有機化合物はプラスチック、石鹸、香水、甘味料、生地、医薬品、その他日常的に使用される多くの物質の主要な要素です。 有機化合物には、生物由来の化合物や化学者が合成した化合物が含まれます。 さまざまな有機分子が存在することは、炭素原子が他の炭素原子と最大 4 つの強い結合を形成する能力があることによるものであり、その結果、さまざまなサイズ、形状、複雑さを持つチェーンやリングが形成されます。 
 
 <h4>炭化水素 </h4>
 
 最も単純な有機化合物は炭素と水素の元素のみを含み、炭化水素と呼ばれます。 炭化水素は、分子に存在する炭素結合の種類によって異なる場合があります。 単一結合のみを含むものはアルカンと呼ばれ、二重結合または三重結合を含むものはそれぞれアルケンとアルキンと呼ばれます。 すべての炭化水素は 2 種類の原子（炭素と水素）で構成されているが、さまざまな長さの鎖、分岐した鎖、炭素原子の環、またはこれらの構造の組み合わせで構成されることがあるため、さまざまな炭化水素が存在します。 
 
 <table style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">
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 <img alt="Eq2.1" src="https://www.jovecore.com/CDNSource/lessons/1290/1290_Image1.1.png" style="height: 150px;" />
 </td>
 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">
 <img alt="Eq2.2" src="https://www.jovecore.com/CDNSource/lessons/1290/1290_Image1.2.png" style="height: 150px;" />
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 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">
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 </td>
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 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">ブタン（ C4H10 ） </td>
 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">イソブタン（ C4H10 ） </td>
 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">シクロブタン（ C4H8 ） </td>
 </tr>
 </tbody>
 </table>
 
  
 
 炭化水素は、主に天然ガス、アセチレン、プロパン、ブタン、ガソリン、ディーゼル燃料、加熱油の主要成分などの燃料として毎日使用されています。 アルカン（飽和炭化水素）には、炭素原子間の共有結合が 1 つだけ含まれています。 通常、融点や沸点などの特性は、分子内の炭素原子と水素原子の数が変化すると予測どおりに変化します。  
 
 単純なアルカンに名前を付けるには、まず、チェーン内の炭素原子の数に応じて土台名を指定します（ meth = 1 、 eth = 2 、 prop = 3 、but = 4 、 pent = 5 、 hex = 6 、 hept = 7 、 oct = 8 、 non = 9 、 dec = 10 ）。 土台名の後には接尾辞が付きます。これは、炭化水素がアルカン（ -ane ）、アルケン（ -ene ）、またはアルキン（ -yne ）のいずれであるかによって決まります。 たとえば、 2 炭素アルカンはエタンと呼ばれ、 3 炭素アルカンはプロパンと呼ばれ、 4 炭素アルカンはブタンと呼ばれます。 長鎖の名前は、ペンタン（ 5 炭素鎖）、ヘキサン（ 6 ）、ヘプタン（ 7 ）、オクタン（ 8 ）、ノナン（ 9 ）、 およびデカン（ 10 ）と名付けられます。  
 
 アルケンとアルキンは、少なくとも 2 つの炭素原子の間にそれぞれ二重結合と三重結合を含む不飽和炭化水素です。 これらの名称は、アルカンの名称と同じ手順に従い、土台名 + 接尾辞となります。 たとえば、 2 炭素鎖アルケンはエテンと呼ばれ、 2 炭素アルキンはエチンと呼ばれます。 3 炭素アルキンはプロペンと呼ばれ、 3 炭素アルキンはプロピンと呼ばれ、同様に続いていきます。  
 
 <table style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">
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 <img alt="Eq2.1" src="https://www.jovecore.com/CDNSource/lessons/1290/1290_Image2.1.png" style="height: 150px;" />
 </td>
 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">
 <img alt="Eq2.2" src="https://www.jovecore.com/CDNSource/lessons/1290/1290_Image2.2.png" style="height: 150px;" />
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 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">
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 </td>
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 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">エタン（ C2H6 ） </td>
 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">エテン（ C2H4 ）  </td>
 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">エチン（ C2H2 ） </td>
 </tr>
 </tbody>
 </table>
 
 <h4>官能基付き炭化水素 </h4>
 
 官能基を炭素および水素を含む分子に組み込むことで、官能基付き炭化水素と呼ばれる化合物郡ができます。 官能基は、炭化水素誘導体の特性を主に決定する原子または原子のグループです。  
 
 官能基の 1 つのタイプは -OH 基です。 -OH 官能基を持つ化合物はアルコールです。 アルコールの名前は、その元となった炭化水素に由来します。 慣習的に、分子の炭化水素部分は「 R 」と指定されているため、アルコールの一般的な公式は R – OH となります。 炭化水素の名前の最後の「– e 」は「– ol 」に置き換えられます。 分岐アルコールの場合、 -OH 基が結合した炭素原子は、名前の前に配置された数字で示されます。 その他の一般的な機能基を以下に示します。 同じ官能基を含む化合物のグループがファミリーを形成します。 
 
 <table style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">
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 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">ファミリー </td>
 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">官能基 </td>
 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">例 </td>
 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">式 </td>
 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">名前（ Name ） </td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">アルコール </td>
 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;"><img alt="Eq3" src="https://www.jovecore.com/CDNSource/lessons/1290/1290_Image 3.svg" style="height: 15px;" /></td>
 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;"><img alt="Eq4" src="https://www.jovecore.com/CDNSource/lessons/1290/1290_Image 4.svg" style="height: 75px;" /></td>
 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">C3H8O </td>
 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">プロパノール </td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">エーテル </td>
 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;"><img alt="Eq5" src="https://www.jovecore.com/CDNSource/lessons/1290/1290_Image 5.svg" style="height: 15px;" /></td>
 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;"><img alt="Eq6" src="https://www.jovecore.com/CDNSource/lessons/1290/1290_Image 6.svg" style="height: 75px;" /></td>
 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">C2H6O </td>
 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">ジメチルエーテル </td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">アルデヒド </td>
 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;"><img alt="Eq7" src="https://www.jovecore.com/CDNSource/lessons/1290/1290_image 7.svg" style="height: 45px;" /></td>
 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;"><img alt="Eq8" src="https://www.jovecore.com/CDNSource/lessons/1290/1290_Image 8.svg" style="height: 75px;" /></td>
 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">C3H6O </td>
 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">プロパナール </td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">ケトン </td>
 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;"><img alt="Eq9" src="https://www.jovecore.com/CDNSource/lessons/1290/1290_Image 9.svg" style="height: 45px;" /></td>
 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;"><img alt="Eq10" src="https://www.jovecore.com/CDNSource/lessons/1290/1290_Image 10.svg" style="height: 75px;" /></td>
 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">C3H6O </td>
 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">プロパノン（アセトン） </td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">カルボン酸 </td>
 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;"><img alt="Eq11" src="https://www.jovecore.com/CDNSource/lessons/1290/1290_Image 11.svg" style="height: 45px;" /></td>
 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;"><img alt="Eq12" src="https://www.jovecore.com/CDNSource/lessons/1290/1290_Image 12.svg" style="height: 75px;" /></td>
 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">C3H6O2 </td>
 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">プロパン酸 </td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">エステル </td>
 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;"><img alt="Eq13" src="https://www.jovecore.com/CDNSource/lessons/1290/1290_Image 13.svg" style="height: 45px;" /></td>
 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;"><img alt="Eq14" src="https://www.jovecore.com/CDNSource/lessons/1290/1290_Image 14.svg" style="height: 75px;" /></td>
 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">C4H8O2 </td>
 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">酢酸エチル </td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">アミン </td>
 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;"><img alt="Eq15" src="https://www.jovecore.com/CDNSource/lessons/1290/1290_Image 15.svg" style="height: 17px;" /></td>
 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;"><img alt="Eq16" src="https://www.jovecore.com/CDNSource/lessons/1290/1290_Image 16.svg" style="height: 75px;" /></td>
 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">C3H9N </td>
 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">プロピルアミン </td>
 </tr>
 </tbody>
 </table>
 
  
 
 エーテルは、官能基– O –を含む化合物で、一般的な式 R – O – R ’を持ちます。  
 
 もう一つの有機分子は、炭素原子と酸素原子が二重結合で結ばれたもので、一般的にカルボニル基と呼ばれています。 カルボニル基内の炭素は、他の 2 つの置換基に結合して、複数のサブファミリー（アルデヒド、ケトン、カルボン酸、エステル）を生成することができます。  
 
 カルボニル基に関連する官能基には、アルデヒドの CHO グループ、ケトンの -CO グループ、カルボン酸の -CO2H グループ、エステルの -CO2R グループなどがあります。 炭素 - 酸素二重結合であるカルボニル基は、これらの有機分子クラスの重要な構造です。 アルデヒドには、カルボニル炭素原子に少なくとも1つの水素原子が結合しており、ケトンにはカルボニル炭素原子に2つの炭素基が結合しており、カルボン酸には、カルボニル炭素原子にヒドロキシル基が結合しています。 また、エステルにはカルボニル炭素原子に結合した別の炭素基に酸素原子が結合しています。 これらの化合物はすべて、アルコール基の炭素原子に対して酸化された炭素原子を含んでいます。 
 
 有機物質のフレームワークに窒素を加えることで、アミンとアミドという 2 つの分子ファミリーが形成されます。 炭化水素骨格に窒素原子が結合した化合物は、アミンに分類されます。 カルボニル基の片側に窒素原子が結合している化合物はアミドとして分類されます。 アミンは基本的な官能基です。 アミンとカルボン酸は、縮合反応で結合してアミドを形成できます。 
 
 このテキストは次から引用しています <a href="https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-2e/pages/20-introduction">、 Openstax 、 Chemistry 2e 、 Section 20 ： Introduction 、 Openstax 、 Chemistry 2e 、 セクション 20.1 ：炭化水素、 Openstax 、 Chemistry 2e 、セクション 20.2 ：アルコールおよびエーテル、 Openstax 、 Chemistry 2e 、セクション 20.2 ：アルデヒド、ケトン、 カルボン酸、エステル、</a> <a href="https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-2e/pages/20-4-amines-and-amides">Openstax 、 Chemistry 2e 、 Section 20.2: アミンおよびアミド</a>。

すべての生物は、そのほとんどが有機化合物と呼ばれる炭素化合物でできています。有機化合物のカテゴリーには、天然化合物と合成化合物の両方が含まれます...

Education

JoVE Core

化学

Molecules, Compounds, and Chemical Equations

分子、化合物、および化学方程式

molecules-compounds-and-chemical-equations

KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS

主要用語と概念

organic molecules in everyday chemistry

Organic molecules are carbon-based compounds found in living things and in many everyday products. Most organic compounds have carbon as the main element, bonded to hydrogen and other carbon atoms. Some carbon-containing substances, such as carbonates, cyanides, and simple oxides like CO and CO2, are not classified as organic.

Carbon can form up to four strong bonds, which helps explain why organic compounds can make chains and rings of many sizes and shapes. These molecules appear in plastics, soaps, perfumes, sweeteners, fabrics, pharmaceuticals, and many other materials used daily. Organic compounds may come from living organisms, or they may be made by chemists.

The simplest organic compounds are hydrocarbons, which contain only carbon and hydrogen. Hydrocarbons can have only single bonds, only double bonds, or only triple bonds. Those with single bonds are called alkanes, while those with double or triple bonds are called alkenes and alkynes.

Hydrocarbons vary because their carbon atoms can form straight chains, branched chains, rings, or combinations of these structures. Examples include butane, isobutane, and cyclobutane. Hydrocarbons are widely used as fuels, including natural gas, acetylene, propane, butane, and the main components of gasoline, diesel fuel, and heating oil.

Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons because they contain only single covalent bonds between carbon atoms. Their melting point and boiling point usually change in a regular way as the number of carbon and hydrogen atoms changes. Simple alkane names use a prefix based on the number of carbon atoms, such as meth, eth, prop, but, pent, hex, hept, oct, non, and dec, followed by the ending -ane.

This naming pattern also helps identify alkenes and alkynes. The suffix changes to -ene for alkenes and -yne for alkynes. A two-carbon alkane is ethane, a three-carbon alkane is propane, and a four-carbon alkane is butane. The matching alkene and alkyne names are ethene and ethyne, then propene and propyne.

Adding a functional group to a hydrocarbon creates a functionalized hydrocarbon. A functional group is a specific atom or group of atoms that largely controls the properties of the compound. One common example is the -OH group, which makes a molecule an alcohol. Alcohol names come from the hydrocarbon name, with the final -e changed to -ol, and a branched alcohol may need a number to show where the -OH group is attached.

Other families of functionalized hydrocarbons include ethers, aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids, esters, amines, and amides. Ethers contain an -O- group and have the general formula R-O-R'. Carbonyl compounds contain a carbon-oxygen double bond. In aldehydes, the carbonyl carbon has at least one hydrogen attached. In ketones, it has two carbon groups attached. In carboxylic acids, a hydroxyl group is attached to the carbonyl carbon. In esters, an oxygen atom is attached to another carbon group connected to the carbonyl carbon.

These carbonyl families all have carbon atoms that are more oxidized than the carbon atom in an alcohol group. Nitrogen can also be part of organic molecules. Compounds with nitrogen in a hydrocarbon framework are called amines, and compounds with nitrogen on one side of a carbonyl group are called amides. Amines are basic, and amines can react with carboxylic acids in a condensation reaction to form amides.

Organic Molecules in Everyday Chemistry

molecules and compounds

Atomic Elements, Molecules, and Bonds

Matter is made of elements, and elements are built from atoms. An atom is the smallest unit of an element that still keeps that element’s properties. A silver coin, for example, is made of silver atoms. Each atom keeps the unique properties of silver. Elements are pure substances made of identical atoms. They cannot be broken down into simpler substances by chemical changes. Most elements are atomic elements, which use single atoms as their basic unit. Carbon and sodium are examples of atomic...

molecular models

Molecular Model Types in Chemistry

Molecular models help chemists and students visualize the structures and shapes of atoms and molecules. They represent the molecular architecture of chemical compounds in a way that is easier to study than formulas alone. Skeletal models are simple two-dimensional drawings of compounds. They show the molecular framework, or the bonds, without drawing every atom. In this model, many carbon and hydrogen atoms are not shown directly. Their positions are implied by the ends and junctions of the...

organic compounds

Organic molecules are carbon-based compounds found in living things and in many everyday products. Most organic compounds have carbon as the main element, bonded to hydrogen and other carbon atoms. Some carbon-containing substances, such as carbonates, cyanides, and simple oxides like CO and CO2, are not classified as organic. Carbon can form up to four strong bonds, which helps explain why organic compounds can make chains and rings of many sizes and shapes. These molecules appear in...

formula mass and mole concepts of compounds

formula-mass-and-mole-concepts-of-compounds

Chemical Formula Mass and Percent Composition

Chemical formula mass and percent composition help describe the makeup of compounds. A chemical formula shows which atoms are present and how many of each atom appear in a substance. For covalent compounds, the formula shows the atoms in one molecule. That is why formula mass can also be called molecular mass. Chloroform, CHCl3, is one example. Its formula shows one carbon atom, one hydrogen atom, and three chlorine atoms. The molecular mass is the sum of their average atomic masses. Ionic...

experimental determination of chemical formula

experimental-determination-of-chemical-formula

Finding Empirical and Molecular Formulas

Chemical formulas show the elemental makeup of a compound. When a formula is unknown, scientists often start by measuring the masses of the elements in the sample. Those mass data are then used to find the simplest whole-number ratio of atoms, which gives the empirical formula. To get from mass to atom ratio, the masses of the elements are first converted to moles using molar masses. Chemical formulas describe numbers of atoms, not masses, so this step is necessary. In one example, 1.71 grams...

chemical equations

Reading Chemical Equations and Balancing Them

Chemical equations show the identities and relative amounts of substances in a chemical reaction. The substances that react are called reactants, and their formulas are written on the left side of the equation. The substances formed are called products, and their formulas are written on the right side. A plus sign (+) separates formulas on the same side, and an arrow (→) shows the change from reactants to products. The numbers in a chemical equation are shown with coefficients. A coefficient...

key terms and concepts

Explore how carbon forms hydrocarbons and functional groups, and learn the names, structures, and uses of key organic molecules in everyday life.

Organic Molecules in Everyday Chemistry | JoVE K12

chemistry

JoVE Core 化学は、簡潔で理解しやすいアニメーションビデオレッスンを使用して、一般的な化学の概念を生き生きとしたものにします。さらに、活動する科学者のビデオでは、現在世界中の実験室で行われている古典的そして独創的な研究・実験をお見せします。

PS.Chm.4.3

ohios-learning-standards-and-model-curriculum

Ohio’s Learning Standards and Model Curriculum

Structure And Properties Of Matter

Representing compounds

Minnesota Academic Standards in Science

3.2.2 9C.3.2.1.1

Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills

High School

CHEM.7

CHEM.7.B

CHEM.12

CHEM.12.A

Florida Department of Education

Physical Science

SC.912.P.8

SC.912.P.8.12

Scientific Laws and Theories

Scientific Laws

In science, a law is defined as a concise, verbal or mathematical, statement that summarizes a vast number of experimental observations. ...

The Scientific Method

Chemistry is an empirical science. Scientists often pose questions to understand the chemistry in everyday life and seek answers to these questions. To ...

Classifying Matter by State

Chemistry is the study of matter and the changes it undergoes. Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space. Matter is all around us; the air, ...

Classifying Matter by Composition

Matter: Pure Substances and Mixtures
According to its composition, the matter can be classified into two broad categories &mdash; pure substances and ...

The Atomic Theory of Matter

The earliest recorded discussion of the basic structure of matter comes from ancient Greek philosophers. Leucippus and Democritus argued that all matter ...

Subatomic Particles

Dalton was only partially correct about the particles that make up matter. All matter is composed of atoms, and atoms are composed of three smaller ...

Elements: Chemical Symbols and Isotopes

A chemical symbol is an abbreviation used to indicate an element or an atom of an element. For example, the symbol for mercury is Hg. The same symbol is ...

Use models to explain how the scientific understanding of atomic structure has evolved.

PS.Chm.1.1

Radioactivity and Nuclear Equations

Nuclear chemistry is the study of reactions that involve changes in nuclear structure. The nucleus of an atom is composed of protons and, except for ...

Types of Radioactivity

The most common types of radioactivity are &#945; decay, &#946; decay, &#947; decay, neutron emission, and electron capture.
Alpha (&#945;) decay is the ...

Nuclear Stability

Protons and neutrons, collectively called nucleons, are packed together tightly in a nucleus. With a radius of about 10&#8722;15 meters, a nucleus is ...

Nuclear Binding Energy

The difference between the calculated and experimentally measured masses is known as the mass defect of the atom. In the case of helium-4, the mass defect ...

Radioactive Decay and Radiometric Dating

Radioactivity is a spontaneous disintegration of an unstable nuclide and is a random process, as all the nuclei in the sample do not decay simultaneously. ...

Nuclear Fission

Many heavier elements with smaller binding energies per nucleon can decompose into more stable elements that have intermediate mass numbers and larger ...

Nuclear Power

Controlled nuclear fission reactions are used to generate electricity. Any nuclear reactor that produces power via the fission of uranium or plutonium by ...

Nuclear Fusion

The process of converting very light nuclei into heavier nuclei is also accompanied by the conversion of mass into large amounts of energy, a process ...

Nuclear Transmutation

Nuclear transmutation is the conversion of one nuclide into another. It can occur by the radioactive decay of a nucleus, or the reaction of a nucleus with ...

Use models to compare nuclear reactions including alpha decay, beta decay and gamma decay; nuclear fusion and nuclear fission.

PS.Chm.1.2

Atomic Orbitals

An atomic orbital represents the three-dimensional regions in an atom where an electron has the highest probability to reside. The radial distribution ...

The Pauli Exclusion Principle

The arrangement of electrons in the orbitals of an atom is called its electron configuration. We describe an electron configuration with a symbol that ...

The Energies of Atomic Orbitals

In an atom, the negatively charged electrons are attracted to the positively charged nucleus. In a multielectron atom, electron-electron repulsions are ...

The Aufbau Principle and Hund's Rule

To determine the electron configuration for any particular atom, we can build the structures in the order of atomic numbers. Beginning with hydrogen, and ...

electron-configuration-of-multielectron-atoms

Electron Configuration of Multielectron Atoms

The alkali metal sodium (atomic number 11) has one more electron than the neon atom. This electron must go into the lowest-energy subshell available, the ...

Use models to explain how electrons are distributed in atoms.

PS.Chm.1.3

Periodic Classification of the Elements

The periodic table arranges atoms based on increasing atomic number so that elements with the same chemical properties recur periodically. When their ...

The Periodic Table

As early chemists discovered more elements, they realized that various elements could be grouped by their similar chemical behaviors. One such grouping ...

Atomic Mass

Atoms &mdash; and the protons, neutrons, and electrons that compose them &mdash; are extremely small. For example, a carbon atom weighs less than 2 ...

Molar Mass

The identity of a substance is defined not only by the types of atoms or ions it contains but by the quantity of each type of atom or ion. For example, ...

Use the Periodic Table as a model to predict the relative properties of elements based on the pattern of valence electrons in the outermost energy levels of atoms.

PS.Chm.2.1

atomic-radii-and-effective-nuclear-charge

Atomic Radii and Effective Nuclear Charge

The elements in groups of the periodic table exhibit similar chemical behavior. This similarity occurs because the members of a group have the same number ...

Ionic Radii

Ionic radius is the measure used to describe the size of an ion. A cation always has fewer electrons and the same number of protons as the parent atom; it ...

Ionization Energy

The amount of energy required to remove the most loosely bound electron from a gaseous atom in its ground state is called its first ionization energy ...

Electron Affinity

The electron affinity (EA) is the energy change for adding an electron to a gaseous atom to form an anion (negative ion).



This process can be either ...

Construct an explanation to infer the atomic size, reactivity, electronegativity, and ionization energy of an element based on its position in the Periodic Table.

PS.Chm.2.2

Types of Chemical Bonds

Chemical bonding theories were pioneered by American chemist Gilbert&#xA0;N. Lewis. He developed a model called the Lewis model to explain the type and ...

Lewis Symbols and the Octet Rule

Chemical bonds are complex interactions between two or more atoms or ions, which reduce the potential energy of the molecule. Gilbert N. Lewis developed a ...

Ionic Bonding and Electron Transfer

Ions are atoms or molecules bearing an electrical charge. A cation (a positive ion) forms when a neutral atom loses one or more electrons from its valence ...

The Born-Haber Cycle

Lattice Energy&#xA0;

An ionic compound is stable because of the electrostatic attraction between its positive and negative ions. The lattice energy of a ...

trends-in-lattice-energy-ion-size-and-charge

Trends in Lattice Energy: Ion Size and Charge

An ionic compound is stable because of the electrostatic attraction between its positive and negative ions. The lattice energy of a compound is a measure ...

Covalent Bonding and Lewis Structures

Compared to ionic bonds, which results from the transfer of electrons between metallic and nonmetallic atoms, covalent bonds result from the mutual ...

Electronegativity

Whether a bond is nonpolar or polar covalent is determined by a property of the bonding atoms called electronegativity.&#xA0;

Electronegativity values of ...

bond-polarity-dipole-moment-and-percent-ionic-character

Bond Polarity, Dipole Moment, and Percent Ionic Character

Bond Polarity

The absolute value of the difference in electronegativity (&Delta;EN) of two bonded atoms provides a rough measure of the polarity to be ...

lewis-structures-of-molecular-compounds-and-polyatomic-ions

Lewis Structures of Molecular Compounds and Polyatomic Ions

To draw Lewis structures for complicated molecules and molecular ions, it is helpful to follow a step-by-step procedure as outlined:


	Determine the ...

Resonance

The Lewis structure of a nitrite anion (NO2&minus;) may actually be drawn in two different ways, distinguished by the locations of the N-O and N=O ...

Formal Charges

In some cases, there are seemingly more than one valid Lewis structures for molecules and polyatomic ions. The concept of formal charges can be used to ...

Exceptions to the Octet Rule

Many covalent molecules have central atoms that do not have eight electrons in their Lewis structures. These molecules fall into three categories:


	...

Bond Energies and Bond Lengths

Stable molecules exist because covalent bonds hold the atoms together. The strength of a covalent bond is measured by the energy required to break it, ...

Analyze and interpret data to explain the mechanisms and properties of the two main types of intramolecular (ionic and covalent) bonds.

PS.Chm.3.1

molecular-comparison-of-gases-liquids-and-solids

Molecular Comparison of Gases, Liquids, and Solids

Particles in a solid are tightly packed together (fixed shape) and often arranged in a regular pattern; in a liquid, they are close together with no ...

Intermolecular vs Intramolecular Forces

Intermolecular forces (IMF) are electrostatic attractions arising from charge-charge interactions between molecules. The strength of the intermolecular ...

Intermolecular Forces

Atoms and molecules interact through bonds (or forces): intramolecular and intermolecular. The forces are electrostatic as they arise from interactions ...

comparing-intermolecular-forces-melting-point-boiling-point

Comparing Intermolecular Forces: Melting Point, Boiling Point, and Miscibility

Intermolecular forces are attractive forces that exist between molecules. They dictate several bulk properties, such as melting points, boiling points, ...

surface-tension-capillary-action-and-viscosity

Surface Tension, Capillary Action, and Viscosity

Surface Tension
The various IMFs between identical molecules of a substance are examples of cohesive forces. The molecules within a liquid are surrounded ...

Hydrogen Bonds

Hydrogen BondsHydrogen bonds are weak attractions between atoms that have formed other chemical bonds. One of these atoms is electronegative, like oxygen, ...

Van der Waals Interactions

Atoms and molecules interact with each other through intermolecular forces. These electrostatic forces arise from attractive or repulsive interactions ...

Construct an explanation to summarize the influences intermolecular forces have on the properties of chemical compounds.

PS.Chm.3.2

Molecules and Compounds

Atoms and Molecules

Everything in the universe is made up of matter, and matter is composed of a combination of elements. An atom is the smallest unit of ...

Chemical Formulas

A chemical formula presents information about the proportions of atoms constituting a particular chemical compound or molecule, mainly using symbols of ...

Molecular Models

Physical models representing molecular architectures of chemical compounds play essential roles in understanding chemistry. The use of molecular models ...

Classification of Elements and Compounds

Pure substances consist of only one type of matter. A pure substance can be an element or a compound. An element consists of only one type of atom, while ...

ionic-compounds-formulas-and-nomenclature

Ionic Compounds: Formulas and Nomenclature

An element composed of atoms that readily lose electrons (a metal) can react with an element composed of atoms that readily gain electrons (a nonmetal) to ...

molecular-compounds-formulas-and-nomenclature

Molecular Compounds: Formulas and Nomenclature

Molecular compounds or covalent compounds result when atoms share electrons to form covalent bonds. Since there is no electron transfer, molecular ...

All living things are formed mostly of carbon compounds called organic compounds. The category of organic compounds includes both natural and synthetic ...

Formula Mass and Mole Concepts of Compounds

Formula Mass of Covalent Compounds

Chemical formulas represent the elemental makeup of substances. For covalent compounds, the formula represents the ...

Use models to predict chemical names and formulas including ionic (binary & ternary), acidic, and binary covalent compounds.

Analyze the structure of atoms and isotopes.

Organic Molecules in Everyday Chemistry

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