Name: protein crystals for structure analysis
Uploaded: 2023-04-30T06:31:18.000Z
Duration: 7 min 39 s
Channel: JoVE

K12 Standards

new-york-state-science-learning-standards

New York State Science Learning Standards

High School

Physical Science

HS. Waves and Electromagnetic Radiation

HS-PS4-5.

Protein Crystallization

タンパク質の結晶化

タンパク結晶、生体分子の固体格子を取得はタンパク質の構造を解明し、タンパク質の機能の研究ができます。結晶化は、pH、温度、イオン強度、および蛋白質の集中を含む多くの要因の組み合わせで浄化された蛋白質を乾燥を伴います。結晶を取得すると、蛋白質の構造、x 線回折法と電子密度モデルの計算によって解明されうる。
このビデオは、タンパク質の結晶化を紹介し、一般的な手順を示しています。タンパク質の発現と精製、結晶化、x 線回折の手順で覆われています。タンパク質の結晶化のアプリケーションには、膜タンパク質の構造解析、サイト裁決、インシリコ創が含まれます。
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タンパク質の結晶化、蛋白質の格子状固体のフォームを取得するプロセスです。これらの結晶は、構造生物学、タンパク質機能の研究を支援する特に貴重です。量産仕様や SDS ページなどの他の技術だけ蛋白質の一次元構造の情報を提供できます。組換え蛋白質の表現の x 線回折法によるタンパク質の結晶化、補完されます。このビデオは、生化学の分野でタンパク質の結晶化、一般的な研究室プロシージャ、およびそのアプリケーションのいくつかの原則が表示されます。
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プロセスに必要な最初のステップは、通常組換え蛋白質の表現を使用して、非常に純粋な蛋白質のミリグラム量を得るすることです。興味の蛋白質に対応する遺伝子は、発現ベクターにクローン化し、発現タンパク質親和性クロマトグラフィーによる浄化を支援するポリ ヒスチジンなどの親和性タグに融合。詳細については、アフィニ ティー ・ クロマトグラフィーのこのコレクションのビデオを参照してください。
結晶に浄化された蛋白質の形成、pH、イオン強度、鉛塩法の濃度とタンパク質、温度、および平衡の率を含む多くの要因の組み合わせによって決まります。使用される最も一般的なメソッドは蒸気拡散、2 つのカテゴリがあります: ドロップと座っているドロップをぶら下がっています。純粋な蛋白質、バッファー、および鉛塩法は、イオンを含む液滴固体をバインド水の分子、蛋白質のための水の利用を削減し、同じバッファーと鉛塩法のより高濃度混合物貯留層で囲まれたマイクロウェルは、高蛋白質の集中を模倣しました。初めに、蛋白質および鉛塩法の濃度は、結晶化を引き起こすが低すぎます。実験の過程で、水液滴から気化で収集し、貯留層;液滴の水の量の減少により過飽和になるシステムと核形成、結晶化、続いてに発生することができます。液滴から水の純移動は平衡で、システムは、プロセスが完了するまで保持されます。
3 D 構造の視覚化、x 線回折を使用します。結晶からの x 線データを取得するには、ことがすべての角度でビームにさらされている単色 x 線ビームに置かれます。各露光量は、各スポットの回折結晶から出てくるし、検出器によって登録されているが、イメージを提供します。データは、結晶内の原子の配置のモデルを生成する結合されます。結果として得られる結晶構造 2 オングストロームの一般的な解像度と、原子の三次元配置を示しています。
タンパク質の結晶化の原理について説明しましたが、一般的なプロトコルを見てみましょう。
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手順を開始するには、興味の遺伝子を含む表現のベクトルはセルに変換されます。細胞を培養し、中間ログ段階で式が IPTG 遺伝子の mRNA の転写をトリガーするなど、インデューサを追加することによって開始されます。タンパク質発現後粗材は換散バッファー中に浮遊し、遠心分離によって明らかに。
明らかにしライセートがニッケル列に読み込まれます、polyhistidine タグ付きタンパク質が他のすべての生体分子が洗い流される中列にバインドします。
純粋な蛋白質の数ミリグラムを取得すると、気相拡散による結晶化の準備が整いました。24 ウェル ハング/シッティング ドロップ トレイは、さまざまな濃度の塩化ナトリウムとナトリウム酢酸緩衝液でいっぱいです。座ってのドロップ、タンパク質と貯留層のソリューションの平等なボリューム、各井戸の上の棚の上に戻し、トレイは透明テープで覆われています。インキュベーション室に格納されます、トレイと井戸が次の日、その後、数日ごとの成長のため監視されます。
受けたことを適切な結晶 x 線回折分析の準備は完了です。結晶は、選択した方向に結晶を配置するゴニオ メーターにマウントされます。あらゆる角度で x 線回折パターンを作り出すの単色ビーム クリスタルが点灯します。ソフトウェアでは、結晶内の原子の位置を決定することで結晶内の電子密度の三次元モデルに、さまざまな方向で撮影した 2次元の画像に変換します。
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今では手順を見直している、タンパク質の結晶化と別の結晶化の技術のいくつかの有用なアプリケーションを確認してみましょう。
タンパク質の結晶化は、インシリコ創薬に使えます。インフルエンザ ウイルスのポリメラーゼ基本的なタンパク質 2、哺乳類のウイルス感染症にリンクされている、三次元構造は、結晶化と x 線回折法によって決定しました。潜在的な結合部位蛋白質は、可視化、および三次元分子ドッキング プログラムを使って設計されたが、蛋白質の裂け目に挿入します。
タンパク質・ DNA 錯体の共結晶も役に立つテクニックです。DNA 結合タンパク質はさまざまな転写、DNA 重合、DNA 修復など生体機能を調節します。これらの複合体の結晶構造がタンパク質の機能、メカニズム、および特定の相互作用の性質に洞察力を提供できます。大腸菌タンパク質複製、DNA 複製の負の調節因子は hemimethylated DNA の結晶化されました。
不可欠な膜タンパク質など G 蛋白質によってつながれる受容器、または GCPRs、極表面領域融合によるタンパク質結晶の開発につながっている連絡先、結晶格子を形成するための彼らの限られた量のため結晶化が困難です。リゾチーム、GCPR、β 2 アドレナリン受容体をコードする遺伝子は、発現ベクターに挿入されました。Β2AR リゾチームの融合蛋白質の結晶化は、リゾチーム、結晶格子中のパッキング相互作用をかたちづくるために必要によって提供される、当然のことながら疎水性 β2AR 上増加細胞外親水性表面のため実現しました。
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<div class="chapter_text" id="script_4">
タンパク質の結晶化にゼウスのビデオを見てきただけ。このビデオはその原則、一般化されたプロトコル、およびいくつかを説明したバイオメディカル分野で使用。見てくれてありがとう!
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Protein crystallization, obtaining a solid lattice of biomolecules, elucidates protein structure and enables the study of protein function. ...

タンパク質の結晶化は、タンパク質の格子状の固体形態を得るプロセスです。これらの結晶は、構造生物学者にとって特に価値があり、タンパク質機能の研究に役立ちます。質量分析やSDS-PAGEなどの他の手法では、タンパク質の一次元構造に関する情報しか提供できません。タンパク質の結晶化は、組換えタンパク質発現とX線回折の技術によって補完されます。このビデオでは、タンパク質の結晶化の原理、一般的な実験室手順、および生化学分野でのその応用のいくつかを紹介します。このプロセスで必要な最初のステップは、通常は組換えタンパク質発現を使用して、ミリグラム量の非常に純粋なタンパク質を取得することです。目的のタンパク質に対応する遺伝子を発現ベクターにクローニングし、発現したタンパク質をポリヒスチジンなどのアフィニティータグに融合させて、アフィニティークロマトグラフィーによる精製を支援します。詳細については、アフィニティークロマトグラフィーに関するこのコレクションのビデオをご覧ください。精製されたタンパク質の結晶への形成は、pH、イオン強度、沈殿物とタンパク質の濃度、温度、平衡化速度など、多くの要因の適切な組み合わせに依存します。最も一般的な方法は蒸気拡散で、吊り下げ式ドロップと座式ドロップの2つのカテゴリーがあります。純粋なタンパク質、バッファー、および沈殿物(水分子と結合するイオン性固体であり、タンパク質の水の利用可能性を減らし、より高いタンパク質濃度を模倣する)を含む液滴は、同じバッファーと沈殿物のより高濃度の混合物を含むリザーバーを備えた密閉されたマイクロウェルにあります。最初は、タンパク質と沈殿物の濃度が低すぎて結晶化を引き起こしません。実験の過程で、水滴から水が蒸発し、貯水池に集まります。液滴中の水の量が減少すると、システムは過飽和になり、核形成とそれに続く結晶化が発生する可能性があります。液滴からの水の正味の移動は平衡状態にあり、システムはプロセスが完了するまで維持されます。3D構造を視覚化するために、X線回折が使用されます。結晶からX線データを取得するには、単色X線ビームの中に入れ、あらゆる角度でビームにさらします。各露光は画像を提供し、各スポットは回折X線であり、結晶から出て検出器によって記録されます。データを組み合わせて、結晶内の原子の配置のモデルを作成します。結果として得られる結晶構造は、原子の3次元配置を示しており、一般的な分解能は2オングストロームです。さて、タンパク質の結晶化の原理について説明したので、一般化されたプロトコルを見てみましょう。手順を開始するには、目的の遺伝子を含む発現ベクターを細胞に形質転換します。細胞をインキュベートし、中間対数期で、遺伝子のmRNAの転写をトリガーするIPTGなどの誘導剤を追加することで発現を開始します。タンパク質発現後、粗材料を溶解バッファーに懸濁し、遠心分離により清澄化します。次に、清澄化されたライセートをニッケルカラムにロードし、ポリヒスチジンタグ付きタンパク質がカラムに結合する一方で、他のすべての生体分子を洗い流します。数ミリグラムの純粋なタンパク質が得られたら、蒸気拡散による結晶化の準備が整います。24ウェルの吊り下げ式/座式ドロップトレイには、さまざまな濃度の塩化ナトリウムおよび酢酸ナトリウム緩衝液が充填されています。シッティングドロップ法では、等量のタンパク質とリザーバー溶液を各ウェルの上の棚にピペットで移動し、トレイを透明テープで覆います。次に、トレイをインキュベーションチャンバーに入れ、翌日、その後数日ごとにウェルの成長を監視します。適切な結晶が得られたら、X線回折分析の準備が整います。結晶はゴニオメーターに取り付けられ、選択した向きに結晶を配置します。結晶は、あらゆる角度でX線の単色ビームで照らされ、回折パターンを生成します。このソフトウェアは、異なる向きで撮影された2次元画像を、結晶内の原子の位置を決定することにより、結晶内の電子密度の3次元モデルに変換します。手順を確認したので、タンパク質の結晶化のいくつかの有用なアプリケーションと、別の結晶化技術を確認しましょう。タンパク質の結晶化は、インシリコ医薬品の設計に使用できます。インフルエンザウイルスのポリメラーゼ塩基性タンパク質2は、哺乳類のウイルス感染と関連づけられており、結晶化とX線回折によって立体構造が明らかになりました。タンパク質の潜在的な結合部位が視覚化され、ドッキングプログラムを使用して、タンパク質の溝に挿入する三次元分子が設計されました。タンパク質-DNA複合体の共結晶化も有用な技術です。DNA結合タンパク質は、転写やDNA重合、DNA修復など、さまざまな生物学的機能を調節します。また、これらの複合体の結晶構造は、タンパク質の機能、メカニズム、および特定の相互作用の性質に関する洞察を提供することができます。DNA複製の負の調節因子である大腸菌タンパク質SeqAは、ヘミメチル化DNAと共結晶化されました。Gタンパク質共役型受容体(GCPR)などの内在性膜タンパク質は、結晶格子接触を形成するために利用できる極性表面積が限られているため結晶化が困難であり、これが融合タンパク質支援タンパク質結晶化の開発につながっています。?2アドレナリン受容体、GCPR、およびリゾチームをコードする遺伝子を発現ベクターに挿入しました。「2AR-リゾチーム融合タンパク質」の結晶化は、リゾチームによって提供される天然の疎水性「2AR」よりも細胞外親水性表面が増加したため、結晶格子内でのパッキング相互作用の形成に必要でした。JoVEのタンパク質結晶化に関するビデオをご覧になりました。このビデオでは、その原理、一般化されたプロトコル、および生物医学分野でのいくつかの使用法について説明しました。ご覧いただきありがとうございます!

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JoVE Science Education

Chemistry

化学

Biochemistry

生化学

protein crystals for structure analysis

Protein crystals help scientists study protein structure and function. A crystal is a solid lattice made from purified protein molecules. These crystals are useful in structural biology because they reveal details that methods like mass spectrometry and SDS-PAGE cannot show on their own. Protein crystallization is paired with recombinant protein expression and x-ray diffraction to support this work.

The process starts with a large amount of very pure protein. Researchers often make that protein using recombinant expression. The gene of interest is placed in an expression vector, and the protein is given an affinity tag, such as a poly-histidine tag, so it can be purified by affinity chromatography. After purification, the protein is ready for crystal growth.

Crystal formation depends on several conditions. These include pH, ionic strength, protein concentration, precipitant concentration, temperature, and the rate of equilibration. The most common approach is vapor diffusion. In hanging drop and sitting drop setups, a droplet of protein, buffer, and precipitant sits in a sealed chamber with a reservoir that has a more concentrated solution. As water leaves the droplet and moves toward the reservoir, the drop becomes supersaturated. That change can lead to nucleation and then crystal growth.

Once a crystal forms, x-ray diffraction is used to study its 3D structure. The crystal is placed in a monochromatic x-ray beam and exposed from many angles. Each exposure creates a pattern of diffracted spots that a detector records. Software combines the data into a model of electron density and the atom positions in the crystal. The resulting structure can reach about 2 angstroms of resolution.

A general laboratory workflow includes transformation of the expression vector into cells, induction with IPTG during mid-log growth, lysis, centrifugation, and purification on a nickel column. After several milligrams of pure protein are collected, the sample is set up in a 24-well hanging or sitting drop tray. Different sodium chloride and sodium acetate buffer conditions are tested, and the wells are checked for crystal growth over time. When a suitable crystal appears, it is mounted on a goniometer and analyzed by x-ray diffraction.

Protein crystallization has several important uses. It supports in silico drug design by helping scientists see binding sites, as shown with influenza virus polymerase basic protein 2 and a designed docking molecule. It also helps study protein-DNA complexes, such as SeqA bound to hemimethylated DNA, which can reveal how proteins control transcription, DNA polymerization, and DNA repair. Membrane proteins like G-protein coupled receptors are harder to crystallize because they have limited polar surface area for crystal contacts. Fusion-protein-assisted crystallization can help, as seen with the beta2 adrenergic receptor fused to lysozyme.

Protein Crystals for Structure Analysis

dialysis: diffusion based separation

Dialysis for Buffer Exchange in Biochemistry

Dialysis is a common biochemistry technique for buffer exchange and desalting. It separates molecules by diffusion through a semipermeable membrane, which lets small molecules pass while holding larger biomolecules inside the sample. The membrane is the key part of the setup. Its pores create a molecular weight cutoff, so a membrane such as a 10 kDa membrane usually keeps molecules larger than 10 kilodaltons inside. This cutoff is not exact, because membranes have a range of pore sizes.

enzyme assays and kinetics

Measuring Enzyme Reaction Rates

Enzyme reaction rates can be measured with assays that track how substrate or product levels change over time. Enzymes are proteins, or sometimes RNAs, that speed up chemical reactions by lowering the activation energy needed to start them. They act on a specific substrate and help form a product that supports life processes. Enzymatic reactions are often described in three steps. First, the substrate binds to the enzyme active site and forms an enzyme-substrate complex. That complex can fall...

maldi-tof mass spectrometry

How MALDI-TOF Reads Biomolecules

MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry reads biomolecules by using a laser, a matrix, and a time-of-flight analyzer. MALDI, or matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization, helps fragile molecules keep their structure while they are moved into the mass analyzer. The analyzer then separates compounds based on size and charge. In MALDI, the sample is mixed into a matrix, usually an organic compound with aromatic and conjugated double bonds. A laser pulse strikes the spot, and the matrix absorbs most of the...

tandem mass spectrometry

Tandem Mass Spectrometry for Biomolecule Analysis

Tandem mass spectrometry is used to isolate a biomolecule and break it into smaller pieces so its makeup can be studied. Because biomolecules often have large, complex structures, it can be hard to identify their molecular composition and sequence from a single measurement. By linking mass spectrometers in series, the technique first selects one ion and then analyzes the fragments it produces. The process starts with an ion source that converts the sample into ions. A mass analyzer then...

protein crystallization

Protein crystals help scientists study protein structure and function. A crystal is a solid lattice made from purified protein molecules. These crystals are useful in structural biology because they reveal details that methods like mass spectrometry and SDS-PAGE cannot show on their own. Protein crystallization is paired with recombinant protein expression and x-ray diffraction to support this work. The process starts with a large amount of very pure protein. Researchers often make that...

chromatography-based biomolecule purification methods

chromatography-based-biomolecule-purification-methods

Protein Purification with SEC and IMAC

Protein purification with size-exclusion chromatography and affinity chromatography helps isolate biomolecules from complex mixtures. These methods are common in biochemistry because purified samples are needed before a biomolecule’s properties and activity can be studied. The video focuses on the principles behind size-exclusion chromatography, affinity chromatography, and immobilized metal affinity chromatography, or IMAC. Size-exclusion chromatography, or SEC, separates molecules by size. A...

two-dimensional gel electrophoresis

Protein Mapping with 2D Gel Electrophoresis

Protein mapping with 2D gel electrophoresis separates complex protein mixtures across two steps. The method combines isoelectric focusing, or IEF, with sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, or SDS-PAGE. Together, these methods can resolve thousands of biomolecules from a single sample by their isoelectric point and molecular weight. The first dimension is IEF. Each protein has an isoelectric point, or pI, which is the pH where its net charge is zero. Proteins are loaded...

metabolic labeling

Tracking Cell Chemistry with Metabolic Labels

Metabolic labeling tracks cell chemistry by using chemical analogs that cells take up and build into biomolecules. These labels help scientists follow biochemical changes and modifications inside cells. The labeled products can then be studied with tools such as SDS-PAGE and NMR to learn more about metabolic pathways. Several labeling strategies are shown here. Isotopic labeling uses analogs that match the natural molecule but contain uncommon isotopes, such as carbon-13 and nitrogen-15 in an...

electrophoretic mobility shift assay (emsa)

electrophoretic-mobility-shift-assay-emsa

Detecting Protein-DNA Binding by EMSA

Electrophoretic mobility shift assay, or EMSA, is a biochemical method used to detect binding between proteins and nucleic acids. It is also called a gel shift assay. The test compares how a labeled nucleic acid moves through a gel before and after it binds a protein. EMSA is used to see whether a specific protein binds to a specific nucleic acid. First, the nucleic acid is labeled to make a probe. The transcript describes radioactive phosphorus-32 as a common label. The probe is then mixed...

photometric protein determination

Measuring Protein Concentration with Absorbance

Measuring protein concentration with absorbance is a key step in many biochemical assays. Photometric methods use the fact that samples with more light-absorbing material transmit less light. Because concentration and absorption are directly related, this makes it possible to measure an unknown sample. The core idea comes from the Beer-Lambert Law. This law states that the concentration of a light-absorbing species is proportional to its absorbance. The video also introduces the Bradford assay...

density gradient ultracentrifugation

Sucrose Gradient Separation in an Ultracentrifuge

Sucrose gradient separation in an ultracentrifuge is a lab method for isolating cell parts and biomolecules. It uses differences in density to make particles sink or rise in a liquid. A high-speed ultracentrifuge speeds up this process so components can be separated without destroying them. The basic idea starts with a suspension, which is particles mixed in a liquid solvent. Particles that are denser than the solvent sediment, while less dense particles float. A rotor inside the...

co-immunoprecipitation and pull-down assays

co-immunoprecipitation-and-pull-down-assays

Protein Interaction Capture Methods in Cells

Co-immunoprecipitation and pull-down assays are laboratory methods used to capture stable protein-protein interactions. Protein-protein interactions help control many biological functions, but many of them have not yet been identified. These assays are related to immunoprecipitation, which isolates a target protein from a mixed sample using an antibody. In co-immunoprecipitation, or CoIP, an antibody binds the target protein, and that protein is already attached to another protein that the...

reconstitution of membrane proteins

Membrane Proteins in Liposome Models

Membrane proteins can be moved into liposome models so their function can be studied outside a cell. Reconstitution means restoring an isolated biomolecule to a working form. For membrane proteins, that usually means placing a purified protein into an artificial lipid membrane. Cell membranes are made mainly of phospholipids and membrane proteins. The phospholipids form a bilayer with hydrophilic phosphate heads facing water and hydrophobic fatty acid tails facing inward. Some membrane...

f&#246;rster resonance energy transfer (fret)

FRET as a Molecular Ruler in Cells

Föster resonance energy transfer, or FRET, is a way to study close-range biochemical interactions using light-emitting molecules. A donor fluorophore can pass energy to an acceptor fluorophore when their emission and absorption spectra overlap. This transfer happens only when the pair is very close together, usually within 10 nm. Because FRET depends on distance, it is often called a molecular or spectroscopic ruler. The strength of the signal is measured as FRET efficiency, which describes...

surface plasmon resonance (spr)

SPR Biosensors for Tracking Binding Kinetics

Surface plasmon resonance, or SPR, is a way to track biomolecular binding on a label-free biosensor. It is used to measure molecular affinity, kinetics, specificity, and concentration. The method works with a thin metal layer on a prism, where changes in reflected light reveal interactions in real time. SPR sensors use a thin layer of a noble metal on the face of a prism. Light is reflected from the prism-metal interface into a photodetector. At one specific angle, called the surface plasmon...

biochemistry

このコレクションでは、親和性クロマトグラフィーなどの一般的に使用される精製方法や、MALDI-TOFなどの分析方法について紹介します。さらに、共同免疫沈降法や代謝標識法など、生体分子の相互作用や機能を評価する方法も紹介します。

See how purified proteins form crystals, how vapor diffusion works, and how x-ray diffraction reveals 3D protein structure for biology and drug design.

Protein Crystals for Structure Analysis | JoVE K12

Life Science

Structure and Function

HS-LS1-1.

matter-and-energy-in-organisms-and-ecosystems

Matter and Energy in Organisms and Ecosystems

HS-LS1-6.

Inheritance and Variation of Traits

HS-LS3-1.

Overview

Principles of Protein Crystallization

Protocol for Protein Expression, Crystallization, and X-Ray Diffraction

Applications

Summary

Travelling Waves

A wave is a disturbance that propagates from its source, repeating itself periodically, and is typically associated with simple harmonic motion. ...

Wave Parameters

The simplest mechanical waves are associated with simple harmonic motion and repeat themselves for several cycles. These simple harmonic waves can be ...

Equations of Wave Motion

Mathematically, the motion of a wave can be studied using a wavefunction. Consider a string oscillating up and down in simple harmonic motion, having a ...

Graphing the Wave Function

Consider the wave equation for a sinusoidal wave moving in the positive x-direction. The wave equation is a function of both position and time. From the ...

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Velocity and Acceleration of a Wave

A wave propagates through a medium with a constant speed, known as a wave velocity. It is different from the speed of the particles of the medium, which ...

Speed of a Transverse Wave

The speed of a wave depends on the characteristics of the medium. For example, in the case of a guitar, the strings vibrate to produce the sound. The ...

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problem-solving-tuning-of-a-guitar-string

Problem-Solving: Tuning of a Guitar String

In the case of stringed instruments like the guitar, the elastic property that determines the speed of the sound produced is its linear mass density or ...

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Kinetic and Potential Energy of a Wave

All forms of waves carry energy; this is directly visualized in nature. For instance, the waves of earthquakes are so intense that they can shake huge ...

Energy and Power of a Wave

The total energy associated with a wavelength is the sum of the potential energy and the kinetic energy. The average rate of energy transfer associated ...

Interference and Superposition of Waves

When two waves of the same nature occur in the same region simultaneously, they result in interference. Interference of waves implies that the net effect ...

Reflection of Waves

When a wave travels from one medium to another, it gets reflected at the boundary of the second medium. A common example of this is when a person yells at ...

Propagation of Waves

When a wave propagates from one medium to another, part of it may get reflected in the first medium, and part of it may get transmitted to the second ...

Standing Waves

Sometimes waves do not seem to move; rather, they just vibrate in place. Unmoving waves can be seen on the surface of a glass of milk kept in a ...

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Modes of Standing Waves - I

A close look at earthquakes provides evidence for the conditions appropriate for resonance, standing waves, and constructive and destructive interference. ...

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Modes of Standing Waves: II

The starting point for expressing the modes of standing waves is understanding the boundary conditions that the waves must follow. The boundary conditions ...

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Sound Waves

Sound waves can be thought of as fluctuations in the pressure of a medium through which they propagate. Since the pressure also makes the medium&#39;s ...

Sound as Pressure Waves

Sound waves, which are longitudinal waves, can be modeled as the displacement amplitude varying as a function of the spatial and temporal coordinates. As ...

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Perception of Sound Waves

The human ear is not equally sensitive to all frequencies in the audible range. It may perceive sound waves with the same pressure but different ...

Speed of Sound in Solids and Liquids

Most solids and liquids are incompressible&#8212;their densities remain constant throughout. In the presence of an external force, the molecules tend to ...

Speed of Sound in Gases

The speed of sound in a gaseous medium depends on various factors. Since gases constitute molecules that are free to move, they are highly compressible. ...

Shock Waves

While deriving the Doppler formula for the observed frequency of a sound wave, it is assumed that the speed of sound in the medium is greater than the ...

Echo

The human ear cannot distinguish between two sources of sound if they happen to reach within a specific time interval, typically 0.1 seconds apart. More ...

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Use mathematical representations to support a claim regarding relationships among the period, frequency, wavelength, and speed of waves traveling and transferring energy (amplitude, frequency) in various media.

HS-PS4-1.

Using GIS to Investigate Urban Forestry

Source: Laboratories of Margaret Workman and Kimberly Frye - Depaul University
Urban forests broadly include urban parks, street trees, landscaped ...

Evaluate questions about the advantages of using a digital transmission and storage of information.

HS-PS4-2.

concept-of-resonance-and-its-characteristics

Concept of Resonance and its Characteristics

If a driven oscillator needs to resonate at a specific frequency, then very light damping is required. An example of light damping includes playing piano ...

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Sound Waves: Resonance

Resonance is produced depending on the boundary conditions imposed on a wave. Resonance can be produced in a string under tension with symmetrical ...

Sound Waves: Interference

Sound waves can be modeled either as longitudinal waves, wherein the molecules of the medium oscillate around an equilibrium position, or as pressure ...

Interference: Path Lengths

Consider two sources of sound, that may or may not be in phase, emitting waves at a single frequency, and consider the frequencies to be the same.
Two ...

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The Wave Nature of Light

The nature of light has been a subject of inquiry since antiquity. In the seventeenth century, Isaac Newton performed experiments with lenses and prisms ...

The Electromagnetic Spectrum

The electromagnetic spectrum consists of all the types of electromagnetic radiation arranged according to their frequency and wavelength. Each of the ...

The Quantum-Mechanical Model of an Atom

Shortly after de Broglie published his ideas that the electron in a hydrogen atom could be better thought of as being a circular standing wave instead of ...

Quantum Numbers

It is said that the energy of an electron in an atom is quantized; that is, it can be equal only to certain specific values and can jump from one energy ...

Interference and Diffraction

Source: Yong P. Chen, PhD, Department of Physics &#38; Astronomy, College of Science, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN
Interference and diffraction ...

Photoelectric Effect

Source: Yong P. Chen, PhD, Department of Physics &#38;&#38; Astronomy, College of Science, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN
Photoelectric effect ...

Reflection and Refraction

Source: Derek Wilson,&#160;Asantha Cooray, PhD, Department of Physics &#38; Astronomy, School of Physical Sciences, University of California, Irvine, CA
...

Evaluate the claims, evidence, and reasoning behind the idea that electromagnetic radiation can be described either by a wave model or a particle model (quantum theory), and that for some situations one model is more useful than the other.

HS-PS4-3.

Electric Charge in a Magnetic Field

Source: Andrew Duffy, PhD, Department of Physics, Boston University, Boston, MA
This experiment duplicates J.J. Thomson's famous experiment at the end of ...

Electromagnetic Fields

Electric fields generated by static charges, often referred to as electrostatic fields, are characteristically different from electric fields created by ...

Electromagnetic Waves

James Clerk Maxwell formulated a single theory combining all the electric and magnetic effects scientists knew during that time, calling the phenomena his ...

Electromagnetic waves are categorized according to their wavelengths and frequencies, giving the electromagnetic spectrum. These waves are classified as ...

Plane Electromagnetic Waves I

The existence of combined electric and magnetic fields that propagate through space as electromagnetic (EM) waves is the most significant prediction of ...

Plane Electromagnetic Waves II

Consider a plane wavefront traveling in position x-direction with a constant speed. This wavefront can be utilized to obtain the relationship between ...

propagation-speed-of-electromagnetic-waves

Propagation Speed of Electromagnetic Waves

Electromagnetic waves are consistent with Ampere&#39;s law. Assuming there is no conduction current Ampere&#39;s law is given as:


Consider a plane ...

Electromagnetic Waves in Matter

Electromagnetic waves can travel in the vacuum as well as in matter. For example light, which is an electromagnetic wave, can travel through air, water, ...

Energy Carried By Electromagnetic Waves

Anyone who has used a microwave oven knows there is energy in electromagnetic waves. Sometimes, this energy is obvious, such as in the summer sun&#39;s ...

Intensity Of Electromagnetic Waves

The energy transport per unit area per unit time, or the Poynting vector, gives the energy flux of an electromagnetic wave at any specific time. For a ...

Momentum And Radiation Pressure

An object absorbing an electromagnetic wave would experience a force in the direction of propagation of the wave. This force occurs because ...

Cardiac Magnetic Resonance Imaging

Source: Frederick W. Damen and Craig J. Goergen, Weldon School of Biomedical Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana
In this video, high ...

an-introduction-to-drosophila-melanogaster

An Introduction to Drosophila melanogaster

Drosophila melanogaster, also known as the fruit fly, is a powerful model organism widely used in biological research that has made significant ...

an-introduction-to-the-zebrafish-danio-rerio

An Introduction to the Zebrafish: Danio rerio

Zebrafish (Danio rerio) are small freshwater fish that are used as model organisms for biomedical research. The many strengths of these fish include their ...

Evaluate the validity and reliability of claims in published materials of the effects that different frequencies of electromagnetic radiation have when absorbed by matter.

HS-PS4-4.

Protein Crystals for Structure Analysis

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