Name: spr biosensors for tracking binding kinetics
Uploaded: 2023-04-30T06:31:51.000Z
Duration: 6 min 58 s
Channel: JoVE

K12 Standards

Next Generation Science Standards

High School

Physical Science

waves-and-their-applications-in-technologies-for-information-transfer

Waves and Their Applications in Technologies for Information Transfer

HS-PS4-5

Surface Plasmon Resonance (SPR)

表面プラズモン共鳴(SPR)は、生体分子の分子親和性、速度論、特異性、および濃度を評価するためのラベルフリーバイオセンサーの背後にある基本的な光学現象です。SPRでは、プリズム上の薄い金属層で作られたバイオセンサー上で生体分子の相互作用が起こります。生体分子のリアルタイム相互作用は、金属の下側で反射された光の変化を測定することで監視できます。
このビデオでは、SPRの基本概念と、SPRを使用して生体分子の相互作用を解析および視覚化する方法について説明します。これに続いて、SPRを使用して結合速度を調査するためのサンプル調製と実験プロトコルが続きます。アプリケーションセクションでは、SPRイメージング、ローカライズSPR、および量子ドット強化SPRについて説明します。

表面プラズモン共鳴 (spr)

表面プラズモン共鳴 (SPR) 分子の親和性、反応速度論、特異性、および生体分子の濃度を評価するためのバイオ センサーの無料のラベルの背後にある根本的な光学現象であります。SPR バイオ センサー プリズム上に金属の薄い層で生体分子相互作用が発生します。生体分子のリアルタイムの相互作用は、金属フロンディアの下面からの反射光の変化を測定することによって監視できます
このビデオは SPR と解析および生体分子の相互作用を可視化するための使用方法の基本的な概念を説明します。これは、サンプルの準備やスプレーを使用して結合率を調査するための実験プロトコルが続きますアプリケーション] セクションで、SPR イメージング、ローカライズされた SPR、量子ドットの増強 SPR を検討している。
<div class="chapter_text"id="script_0"> 表面プラズモン共鳴または SPR が生体分子の結合・吸着相互作用を評価するための特定のラベル無料バイオの背後にある根本的な現象。ラベル付け、ELISA などを必要とする結合の試金は時間のかかるプロセスをすることができ、試料の機能を変更することがあります。SPR、プリズムの片面に金属の薄い層で特殊なセンサーで生体分子相互作用が発生します。金属の底面から反射される光の変化を監視することによって、SPR 楽器のこれらの相互作用を可視化するラベルを使用せずリアルタイム。SPR、SPR イメージングのための一般的な手順と生物化学でのいくつかのアプリケーションの原則を紹介します。
</div> <div class="chapter_text"id="script_1"> の SPR センサーは通常プリズムの顔の上に貴金属の薄層から成っています。センサーからの測定値を取る、光は光検出器にプリズム金属インターフェイスから反映されます。反射光を除く高強度が金属表面の電子物性に関連する特定の角度として知られている、&#34; 表面プラズモン共鳴角 &#34;.
分子表面に bind が、金属の電子の特性変更、順番に角度を調整します。新しい蛋白質を添付、として複合体、角度シフトされますさらに。SPR 角度の相対的な変化を測定することによりこれらのような相互作用をリアルタイムで監視できます。
別技術呼ばれるローカライズされた、または &#34; L &#34; SPR センサーの表面として金属ナノ粒子を使用します。SPR 角度に影響を与えるプロパティ高い感度と信号の解像度を向上させる各のナノ粒子に局在している。
標準バインディングの相互作用を調査するとき SPR センサー一般に、計測器でのフロー ・ セルの床となるプラットフォームにマウントされます。興味の生体分子は、フローセルを緩衝液によって運ばれます。センサー表面は、金属のための高い親和性を持つ基質で被覆されて頻繁に最初。これにより、順番に興味の analyte 結合するリガンドのかなりの量をセンサーの上に固定される、プロシージャの間に配位子が分離してしまう可能性を低減します。
一度リガンド センサーの動員は、バッファー内のセンサー上の試料が流れていた。結合率と他のキネティック情報試料リガンドを結合として、時間の経過と共に SPR 角度の変更を監視することによってを計算できます。
反射率データも使えます、SPR イメージングや、スプリングによって CCD 検出器に反射した光を演出します。これは全体のセンサーの表面の高コントラスト、高解像度の画像を生成します。SPR と関連の技術を使用して、分子の親和性、反応速度論、特異性、濃度の質問は回答できます。
何をされるか分かっているので、SPR 実験で測定されるさせて &#39; 結合率を調査するための手順を見て。
</div> <div class="chapter_text"id="script_2"> プロシージャ、実行およびサンプル バッファーを開始を準備する必要があります前に。実行中のバッファーを使用して、センサーの上に配位子を預けるし、サンプル バッファーを使用して試料を入金します。センサー チップは丁寧に掃除して、鞘に読み込まれます。その後、デバイスは、フロー ・ セルの下部になる楽器に配置されます。計測器ソフトウェアの実験とその後の分析のセットアップします。必要に応じて、リガンドをキャプチャする基板を用いたセンサーの表面は準備万端します。センサー表面に基質によってキャプチャされます実行バッファー内センサーの表面上の配位子が流れていた。
、サンプル バッファーの検体は、それが選択的に固定化リガンド結合のフロー ・ セルを介して実行されます。反射率の変化をプロットし、速度定数および他調査の反応の反応速度データを決定するコントロールと比較します。
</div> <div class="chapter_text"id="script_3"> SPR 実験を行う方法を理解すると、今、&#39; 生化学における SPR のいくつかの他のアプリケーションを見て。
ここ、SPR イメージングは、時間に対する反射率のセンサー 3 D グラフ 11 受容体の配列がタンパク質を評価する使用され、蛋白質ごとの反射率データから受容体濃度を調製します。これら &#34; プロファイル &#34; 各蛋白質に独特があり、したがって、タンパク質同定のためその後使用できる。
この実験では、細胞の分泌物を調べたカスタムメイド LSPR センサーを用いたします。センサーは、スプリング、蛍光顕微鏡との互換性も。センサーのセルを入金時に細胞分泌物ナノ粒子配列との相互作用の高空間分解能で測定が可能です。
ここでは、量子ドット、ナノ半導体の試料と混合 SPR 信号の強化剤としての使用を検討しました。この高度な &#34; ナノ SPRi &#34; メソッドは、標準のスプリングと ELISA 法による試金に比較しました。ナノ SPRi メソッドは、感度と検出 ELISA 法よりも時間を節約しながら限界を大幅に向上します。
</div> <div class="chapter_text"id="script_4"> あなた &#39; ve を見たゼウス &#39; s 表面プラズモン共鳴のビデオ。この現象を使用して、ラベル、使用せずモニターと画像の生体分子相互作用します。このビデオは、SPR、生化学の SPR 実験、および SPR のいくつかのアプリケーションを実行するための一般的なプロトコルの原則を導入します。
見てくれてありがとう!
</div>

表面プラズモン共鳴 (SPR)

Surface plasmon resonance (SPR) is the underlying optical phenomenon behind label-free biosensors to evaluate the molecular affinity, kinetics, ...

表面プラズモン共鳴(SPR)は、生体分子の結合および吸着相互作用を評価するための特定のラベルフリーバイオセンサーの背後にある基本的な現象です。ELISAのような標識が必要な結合アッセイは、時間のかかるプロセスであり、分析種の機能を変更する可能性があります。SPRでは、プリズムの片面に薄い金属層を寄せた特殊なセンサー上で生体分子の相互作用が起こります。SPR機器は、金属の下側で反射された光の変化を監視することにより、ラベルを使用せずにこれらの相互作用をリアルタイムで視覚化します。このビデオでは、SPRの原理、SPRイメージングの一般的な手順、および生化学におけるいくつかのアプリケーションを紹介します。SPRセンサーは通常、プリズムの表面の上にある貴金属の薄い層でできています。センサーからの読み取りを行うために、光はプリズム-金属界面から反射されて光検出器に入ります。反射光は、「表面プラズモン共鳴角」として知られる金属表面の電子特性に関連する特定の角度を除いて、高強度になります。分子が表面に結合すると、金属の電子特性が変化し、角度が調整されます。新しいタンパク質が結合して複合体を形成すると、角度はさらにシフトします。SPR角度の相対的な変化を測定することで、このような相互作用をリアルタイムで監視できます。局在化(L)SPRと呼ばれる別の手法では、センサー表面として金属ナノ粒子を使用します。SPR角度に影響を与える特性は、各ナノ粒子に高度に局在しているため、感度と信号分解能が向上します。標準SPRとの結合相互作用を調査する場合、センサーは通常、装置内のフローセルの床となるプラットフォームに取り付けられます。目的の生体分子は、緩衝液によってフローセルを通過します。多くの場合、センサーの表面は、金属に対して高い親和性を持つ基板で最初にコーティングされます。これにより、目的の分析物に結合する大量のリガンドがセンサーに固定化され、処置中にリガンドが解離する可能性が減少します。リガンドがセンサーに固定されると、分析物はバッファーでセンサー上を流れます。分析対象物がリガンドに結合する際のSPR角度の経時変化をモニタリングすることで、結合速度やその他の速度論的情報を計算できます。反射率データは、反射光をCCD検出器に向けることで、SPRイメージング(SPRi)にも使用できます。これにより、センサー表面全体の高コントラスト、高解像度の画像が生成されます。SPRおよび関連技術を使用して、分子親和性、速度論、特異性、および濃度に関する質問に答えることができます。SPR実験で何が測定されるのかを理解したところで、次は結合率を調査する手順を見てみましょう。手順を開始する前に、ランニング・バッファーとサンプル・バッファーを準備する必要があります。ランニングバッファーはリガンドをセンサーに堆積させるために使用され、サンプルバッファーは分析物を堆積するために使用されます。センサーチップは慎重に洗浄され、シースに装填されます。次に、デバイスは装置内に配置され、そこでフローセルの底部になります。装置ソフトウェアは、実験とその後の分析のためにセットアップされます。必要に応じて、センサー表面に基板をプライミングしてリガンドを捕捉します。リガンドは、ランニングバッファー内のセンサー表面上を流れ、センサー表面の基板に捕捉されます。次に、サンプルバッファー中の分析物をフローセルに流し、固定化リガンドに選択的に結合します。反射率の変化をプロットし、コントロールと比較して、調査した反応の速度定数やその他の反応速度論データを決定します。SPR実験がどのように行われるかを理解したところで、生化学におけるSPRの他のいくつかのアプリケーションを見てみましょう。ここでは、SPRイメージングを使用して、センサー上の11個の受容体の配列を持つタンパク質を評価しました。各タンパク質の反射率データから、反射率と時間、受容体濃度の3Dグラフを作製しました。これらの「プロファイル」は各タンパク質に特徴的であるため、その後、タンパク質の同定に使用できます。この実験では、カスタムメイドのLSPRセンサーを使用して細胞分泌物を調べました。また、このセンサーはSPRiおよび蛍光顕微鏡にも対応していました。細胞をセンサー上に堆積させると、細胞分泌物とナノ粒子アレイとの相互作用を高い空間分解能で測定できます。ここでは、分析物と混合したSPRシグナル増強剤として、量子ドットであるナノスケール半導体の使用を検討しました。この強化された「ナノSPRi」法を、標準的なSPRiおよびELISA法によるアッセイと比較しました。nano-SPRi法は、ELISA法よりも時間がかかりながら、感度と検出限界を大幅に改善しました。JoVEの表面プラズモン共鳴に関するビデオを見ました。この現象は、ラベルを使用せずに生体分子の相互作用をモニターおよびイメージングするために使用されます。このビデオでは、SPR実験を実施するための一般的なプロトコルであるSPRの原理と、生化学におけるSPRのいくつかの応用を紹介しました。ご覧いただきありがとうございます!

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spr biosensors for tracking binding kinetics

Surface plasmon resonance, or SPR, is a way to track biomolecular binding on a label-free biosensor. It is used to measure molecular affinity, kinetics, specificity, and concentration. The method works with a thin metal layer on a prism, where changes in reflected light reveal interactions in real time.

SPR sensors use a thin layer of a noble metal on the face of a prism. Light is reflected from the prism-metal interface into a photodetector. At one specific angle, called the surface plasmon resonance angle, the reflected light drops in intensity. When molecules bind to the metal surface, the electronic properties change and the angle shifts. As more proteins attach and form complexes, the shift becomes larger.

A related method, localized SPR, or LSPR, uses metal nanoparticles as the sensor surface. Because the sensing effect is highly local around each nanoparticle, LSPR can improve sensitivity and signal resolution. SPR data can also be turned into images with SPR imaging, or SPRi, by sending the reflected light to a CCD detector. This creates a high-contrast, high-resolution image of the full sensor surface.

For a standard SPR binding assay, the sensor is mounted in a platform that forms the floor of a flow cell. Biomolecules are carried through the flow cell in buffer solution. The sensor surface is often coated first with a substrate that binds the metal well. This helps immobilize the ligand, which is the molecule that will capture the analyte, and lowers the chance that the ligand will dissociate during the run. After the ligand is attached, the analyte is flowed over the sensor in buffer, and the change in SPR angle is recorded over time to calculate binding rates and other kinetic data.

Before the experiment begins, the running buffer and sample buffer must be prepared. The running buffer is used to deposit the ligand onto the sensor, and the sample buffer is used to deposit the analyte. The sensor chip is cleaned, loaded into a sheath, and placed into the instrument. The software is then set up for data collection and analysis. If needed, the surface is primed with a capture substrate. The ligand is then captured, the analyte is run through the flow cell, and the reflectance change is compared with controls to determine rate constants and other reaction kinetics.

SPR is also useful in several biochemistry applications. In one SPR imaging example, proteins were tested with an array of eleven receptors on a sensor, and 3D graphs of reflectivity versus time and receptor concentration were made for each protein. These reflectivity profiles were characteristic of each protein and could be used for identification. In another study, cell secretions were measured with a custom LSPR sensor that also worked with SPRi and fluorescence microscopy. A further application used quantum dots, which are nanoscale semiconductors, to enhance the SPR signal in a method called nano-SPRi. Compared with standard SPRi and ELISA, nano-SPRi improved sensitivity and the limit of detection while still taking less time than ELISA.

SPR Biosensors for Tracking Binding Kinetics

dialysis: diffusion based separation

Dialysis for Buffer Exchange in Biochemistry

Dialysis is a common biochemistry technique for buffer exchange and desalting. It separates molecules by diffusion through a semipermeable membrane, which lets small molecules pass while holding larger biomolecules inside the sample. The membrane is the key part of the setup. Its pores create a molecular weight cutoff, so a membrane such as a 10 kDa membrane usually keeps molecules larger than 10 kilodaltons inside. This cutoff is not exact, because membranes have a range of pore sizes.

enzyme assays and kinetics

Measuring Enzyme Reaction Rates

Enzyme reaction rates can be measured with assays that track how substrate or product levels change over time. Enzymes are proteins, or sometimes RNAs, that speed up chemical reactions by lowering the activation energy needed to start them. They act on a specific substrate and help form a product that supports life processes. Enzymatic reactions are often described in three steps. First, the substrate binds to the enzyme active site and forms an enzyme-substrate complex. That complex can fall...

maldi-tof mass spectrometry

How MALDI-TOF Reads Biomolecules

MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry reads biomolecules by using a laser, a matrix, and a time-of-flight analyzer. MALDI, or matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization, helps fragile molecules keep their structure while they are moved into the mass analyzer. The analyzer then separates compounds based on size and charge. In MALDI, the sample is mixed into a matrix, usually an organic compound with aromatic and conjugated double bonds. A laser pulse strikes the spot, and the matrix absorbs most of the...

tandem mass spectrometry

Tandem Mass Spectrometry for Biomolecule Analysis

Tandem mass spectrometry is used to isolate a biomolecule and break it into smaller pieces so its makeup can be studied. Because biomolecules often have large, complex structures, it can be hard to identify their molecular composition and sequence from a single measurement. By linking mass spectrometers in series, the technique first selects one ion and then analyzes the fragments it produces. The process starts with an ion source that converts the sample into ions. A mass analyzer then...

protein crystallization

Protein Crystals for Structure Analysis

Protein crystals help scientists study protein structure and function. A crystal is a solid lattice made from purified protein molecules. These crystals are useful in structural biology because they reveal details that methods like mass spectrometry and SDS-PAGE cannot show on their own. Protein crystallization is paired with recombinant protein expression and x-ray diffraction to support this work. The process starts with a large amount of very pure protein. Researchers often make that...

chromatography-based biomolecule purification methods

chromatography-based-biomolecule-purification-methods

Protein Purification with SEC and IMAC

Protein purification with size-exclusion chromatography and affinity chromatography helps isolate biomolecules from complex mixtures. These methods are common in biochemistry because purified samples are needed before a biomolecule’s properties and activity can be studied. The video focuses on the principles behind size-exclusion chromatography, affinity chromatography, and immobilized metal affinity chromatography, or IMAC. Size-exclusion chromatography, or SEC, separates molecules by size. A...

two-dimensional gel electrophoresis

Protein Mapping with 2D Gel Electrophoresis

Protein mapping with 2D gel electrophoresis separates complex protein mixtures across two steps. The method combines isoelectric focusing, or IEF, with sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, or SDS-PAGE. Together, these methods can resolve thousands of biomolecules from a single sample by their isoelectric point and molecular weight. The first dimension is IEF. Each protein has an isoelectric point, or pI, which is the pH where its net charge is zero. Proteins are loaded...

metabolic labeling

Tracking Cell Chemistry with Metabolic Labels

Metabolic labeling tracks cell chemistry by using chemical analogs that cells take up and build into biomolecules. These labels help scientists follow biochemical changes and modifications inside cells. The labeled products can then be studied with tools such as SDS-PAGE and NMR to learn more about metabolic pathways. Several labeling strategies are shown here. Isotopic labeling uses analogs that match the natural molecule but contain uncommon isotopes, such as carbon-13 and nitrogen-15 in an...

electrophoretic mobility shift assay (emsa)

electrophoretic-mobility-shift-assay-emsa

Detecting Protein-DNA Binding by EMSA

Electrophoretic mobility shift assay, or EMSA, is a biochemical method used to detect binding between proteins and nucleic acids. It is also called a gel shift assay. The test compares how a labeled nucleic acid moves through a gel before and after it binds a protein. EMSA is used to see whether a specific protein binds to a specific nucleic acid. First, the nucleic acid is labeled to make a probe. The transcript describes radioactive phosphorus-32 as a common label. The probe is then mixed...

photometric protein determination

Measuring Protein Concentration with Absorbance

Measuring protein concentration with absorbance is a key step in many biochemical assays. Photometric methods use the fact that samples with more light-absorbing material transmit less light. Because concentration and absorption are directly related, this makes it possible to measure an unknown sample. The core idea comes from the Beer-Lambert Law. This law states that the concentration of a light-absorbing species is proportional to its absorbance. The video also introduces the Bradford assay...

density gradient ultracentrifugation

Sucrose Gradient Separation in an Ultracentrifuge

Sucrose gradient separation in an ultracentrifuge is a lab method for isolating cell parts and biomolecules. It uses differences in density to make particles sink or rise in a liquid. A high-speed ultracentrifuge speeds up this process so components can be separated without destroying them. The basic idea starts with a suspension, which is particles mixed in a liquid solvent. Particles that are denser than the solvent sediment, while less dense particles float. A rotor inside the...

co-immunoprecipitation and pull-down assays

co-immunoprecipitation-and-pull-down-assays

Protein Interaction Capture Methods in Cells

Co-immunoprecipitation and pull-down assays are laboratory methods used to capture stable protein-protein interactions. Protein-protein interactions help control many biological functions, but many of them have not yet been identified. These assays are related to immunoprecipitation, which isolates a target protein from a mixed sample using an antibody. In co-immunoprecipitation, or CoIP, an antibody binds the target protein, and that protein is already attached to another protein that the...

reconstitution of membrane proteins

Membrane Proteins in Liposome Models

Membrane proteins can be moved into liposome models so their function can be studied outside a cell. Reconstitution means restoring an isolated biomolecule to a working form. For membrane proteins, that usually means placing a purified protein into an artificial lipid membrane. Cell membranes are made mainly of phospholipids and membrane proteins. The phospholipids form a bilayer with hydrophilic phosphate heads facing water and hydrophobic fatty acid tails facing inward. Some membrane...

f&#246;rster resonance energy transfer (fret)

FRET as a Molecular Ruler in Cells

Föster resonance energy transfer, or FRET, is a way to study close-range biochemical interactions using light-emitting molecules. A donor fluorophore can pass energy to an acceptor fluorophore when their emission and absorption spectra overlap. This transfer happens only when the pair is very close together, usually within 10 nm. Because FRET depends on distance, it is often called a molecular or spectroscopic ruler. The strength of the signal is measured as FRET efficiency, which describes...

surface plasmon resonance (spr)

Surface plasmon resonance, or SPR, is a way to track biomolecular binding on a label-free biosensor. It is used to measure molecular affinity, kinetics, specificity, and concentration. The method works with a thin metal layer on a prism, where changes in reflected light reveal interactions in real time. SPR sensors use a thin layer of a noble metal on the face of a prism. Light is reflected from the prism-metal interface into a photodetector. At one specific angle, called the surface plasmon...

biochemistry

このコレクションでは、親和性クロマトグラフィーなどの一般的に使用される精製方法や、MALDI-TOFなどの分析方法について紹介します。さらに、共同免疫沈降法や代謝標識法など、生体分子の相互作用や機能を評価する方法も紹介します。

Explore how SPR biosensors track biomolecular binding in real time, measure kinetics, and support imaging methods such as SPRi and LSPR.

SPR Biosensors for Tracking Binding Kinetics | JoVE K12

new-york-state-science-learning-standards

New York State Science Learning Standards

HS. Waves and Electromagnetic Radiation

HS-PS4-5.

Life Science

matter-and-energy-in-organisms-and-ecosystems

Matter and Energy in Organisms and Ecosystems

HS-LS1-6.

Overview

Principles of SPR

SPR Sample Preparation and Experimental Protocol

Applications

Summary

Travelling Waves

A wave is a disturbance that propagates from its source, repeating itself periodically, and is typically associated with simple harmonic motion. ...

Wave Parameters

The simplest mechanical waves are associated with simple harmonic motion and repeat themselves for several cycles. These simple harmonic waves can be ...

Equations of Wave Motion

Mathematically, the motion of a wave can be studied using a wavefunction. Consider a string oscillating up and down in simple harmonic motion, having a ...

Graphing the Wave Function

Consider the wave equation for a sinusoidal wave moving in the positive x-direction. The wave equation is a function of both position and time. From the ...

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Velocity and Acceleration of a Wave

A wave propagates through a medium with a constant speed, known as a wave velocity. It is different from the speed of the particles of the medium, which ...

Speed of a Transverse Wave

The speed of a wave depends on the characteristics of the medium. For example, in the case of a guitar, the strings vibrate to produce the sound. The ...

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Kinetic and Potential Energy of a Wave

All forms of waves carry energy; this is directly visualized in nature. For instance, the waves of earthquakes are so intense that they can shake huge ...

Energy and Power of a Wave

The total energy associated with a wavelength is the sum of the potential energy and the kinetic energy. The average rate of energy transfer associated ...

Propagation of Waves

When a wave propagates from one medium to another, part of it may get reflected in the first medium, and part of it may get transmitted to the second ...

Sound Waves

Sound waves can be thought of as fluctuations in the pressure of a medium through which they propagate. Since the pressure also makes the medium&#39;s ...

Sound as Pressure Waves

Sound waves, which are longitudinal waves, can be modeled as the displacement amplitude varying as a function of the spatial and temporal coordinates. As ...

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Speed of Sound in Solids and Liquids

Most solids and liquids are incompressible&#8212;their densities remain constant throughout. In the presence of an external force, the molecules tend to ...

Speed of Sound in Gases

The speed of sound in a gaseous medium depends on various factors. Since gases constitute molecules that are free to move, they are highly compressible. ...

Doppler Effect - I

The Doppler effect and Doppler shift were named after the Austrian physicist and mathematician Christian Johann Doppler in 1842, who conducted experiments ...

Doppler Effect - II

The Doppler effect has several practical, real-world applications. For instance, meteorologists use Doppler radars to interpret weather events based on ...

Shock Waves

While deriving the Doppler formula for the observed frequency of a sound wave, it is assumed that the speed of sound in the medium is greater than the ...

Echo

The human ear cannot distinguish between two sources of sound if they happen to reach within a specific time interval, typically 0.1 seconds apart. More ...

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Electromagnetic Waves

James Clerk Maxwell formulated a single theory combining all the electric and magnetic effects scientists knew during that time, calling the phenomena his ...

Generating Electromagnetic Radiations

The German physicist Heinrich Hertz (1857&#8211;1894) was the first to generate and detect certain types of electromagnetic waves in the laboratory. ...

Electromagnetic Wave Equation

Maxwell&#39;s equations for electromagnetic fields are related to source charges, either static or moving. These fields act on a test charge, whose ...

propagation-speed-of-electromagnetic-waves

Propagation Speed of Electromagnetic Waves

Electromagnetic waves are consistent with Ampere&#39;s law. Assuming there is no conduction current Ampere&#39;s law is given as:


Consider a plane ...

Electromagnetic Waves in Matter

Electromagnetic waves can travel in the vacuum as well as in matter. For example light, which is an electromagnetic wave, can travel through air, water, ...

Energy Carried By Electromagnetic Waves

Anyone who has used a microwave oven knows there is energy in electromagnetic waves. Sometimes, this energy is obvious, such as in the summer sun&#39;s ...

The Wave Nature of Light

The nature of light has been a subject of inquiry since antiquity. In the seventeenth century, Isaac Newton performed experiments with lenses and prisms ...

Use mathematical representations to support a claim regarding relationships among the frequency, wavelength, and speed of waves traveling in various media. [Clarification Statement: Examples of data could include electromagnetic radiation traveling in a vacuum and glass, sound waves traveling through air and water, and seismic waves traveling through the earth.] [Assessment Boundary: Assessment is limited to algebraic relationships and describing those relationships qualitatively.]

HS-PS4-1

The Electromagnetic Spectrum

Electromagnetic waves are categorized according to their wavelengths and frequencies, giving the electromagnetic spectrum. These waves are classified as ...

Classification of Signals

Signals are categorized as Continuous-time or discrete-time, Periodic or aperiodic, Analog or digital, and Causal or noncausal.
A continuous-time signal ...

Discrete Fourier Transform

Consider a vibration sensor that continuously captures data in the form of a continuous time-dependent signal.
However, in reality, the sensor can only ...

Discrete-Time Fourier Series

The Discrete-Time Fourier Series is a counterpart to the Fourier-series expansion of continuous-time periodic signals.
Calculating the expansion ...

Sampling Theorem

Consider the continuous-time signal x(t), and a train of impulses where Ts,&#xA0; is the sampling interval, and fs, is the sampling frequency.
Multiplying ...

Properties of Fourier Transform I

In radio broadcasting, Fourier Transform properties are applied in simultaneous multi-channel transmission, adjusting audio clip speeds, live broadcast ...

Signal and System

Signals are sets of data or information.
One-dimensional signals include single-variable functions, such as the variations in air pressure over time in ...

Methods of Documentation VII: EMR

Electronic Medical Records (EMRs) primarily center around electronically documenting patients&#39; health information within a single healthcare ...

Fast Fourier Transform

The Fast Fourier Transform, FFT, is a computational algorithm for calculating the Discrete Fourier Transform by breaking the calculations into smaller, ...

reconstruction-of-signal-using-interpolation

Reconstruction of Signal using Interpolation

Consider a continuous signal and its sampled counterpart with a sampling period T.
Applying a zero-order hold to the sampled signal results in a piecewise ...

Downsampling

Consider a sampled sequence with zero values between sampling instants. Replace it by taking every N-th value of the sampled sequence.
The original and ...

Design Example

An engineer designs a circuit for a speaker system with a 2 kHz crossover frequency requirement, considering the speaker&#39;s resistance of 8 ohms.
The ...

Upsampling

Consider a decimated signal with a reduced frequency range due to its lower sampling rate.
Insert zeros between each sample to upsample, that introduces ...

Properties of DTFT I

Consider two discrete-time signals, each with their respective Discrete-Time Fourier Transforms DTFTs.
The signals are first multiplied by constants a and ...

Relation of DFT to z-Transform

The Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT) analyzes the frequency content of discrete-time signals.
It maps the N-sampled discrete time-domain sequence to its ...

Feedback control systems

Feedback control systems are categorized as linear or nonlinear, time-varying or time-invariant, and classified by signal types as continuous or ...

Properties of the z-Transform I

Certain properties provide a solid foundation for analyzing discrete-time systems using the Z-transform.
Considering two discrete-time signals, the ...

Magnetic Resonance Imaging

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is a noninvasive medical imaging technique based on a phenomenon of nuclear physics discovered in the 1930s, in which ...

Evaluate questions about the advantages of using digital transmission and storage of information. [Clarification Statement: Examples of advantages could include that digital information is stable because it can be stored reliably in computer memory, transferred easily, and copied and shared rapidly. Disadvantages could include issues of easy deletion, security, and theft.]

HS-PS4-2

Interference and Superposition of Waves

When two waves of the same nature occur in the same region simultaneously, they result in interference. Interference of waves implies that the net effect ...

Sound Waves: Interference

Sound waves can be modeled either as longitudinal waves, wherein the molecules of the medium oscillate around an equilibrium position, or as pressure ...

Interference: Path Lengths

Consider two sources of sound, that may or may not be in phase, emitting waves at a single frequency, and consider the frequencies to be the same.
Two ...

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concept-of-resonance-and-its-characteristics

Concept of Resonance and its Characteristics

If a driven oscillator needs to resonate at a specific frequency, then very light damping is required. An example of light damping includes playing piano ...

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Sound Waves: Resonance

Resonance is produced depending on the boundary conditions imposed on a wave. Resonance can be produced in a string under tension with symmetrical ...

Reflection of Waves

When a wave travels from one medium to another, it gets reflected at the boundary of the second medium. A common example of this is when a person yells at ...

Standing Waves

Sometimes waves do not seem to move; rather, they just vibrate in place. Unmoving waves can be seen on the surface of a glass of milk kept in a ...

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Modes of Standing Waves - I

A close look at earthquakes provides evidence for the conditions appropriate for resonance, standing waves, and constructive and destructive interference. ...

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Evaluate the claims, evidence, and reasoning behind the idea that electromagnetic radiation can be described either by a wave model or a particle model, and that for some situations one model is more useful than the other. [Clarification Statement: Emphasis is on how the experimental evidence supports the claim and how a theory is generally modified in light of new evidence. Examples of a phenomenon could include resonance, interference, diffraction, and photoelectric effect.] [Assessment Boundary: Assessment does not include using quantum theory.]

HS-PS4-3

SPR Biosensors for Tracking Binding Kinetics

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