Name: ionic compounds and crystal lattices
Uploaded: 2020-09-03T13:38:28.000Z
Duration: 2 min 48 s
Channel: JoVE

K12 Standards

north-carolina-k-12-science-standard-course-of-study

North Carolina K-12 Science Standard Course of Study

9-12

Chemistry

Matter and its Interactions

PS.Chm.3.1

Ionic Bonding and Electron Transfer

이온 결합은 금속에서 비금속으로의 전자의 전달에 의해 형성됩니다. 전자를 공유하는 공유 결합과 달리 이온 결합에서는 금속이 전자를 잃고 비금속이 전자를 받는 경향이 있습니다. 하지만 왜 그럴까요?

원자의 가장 안정적인 전자 배치는 옥텟 룰을 만족하는 것입니다. 위치 에너지의 감소로 이러한 상태를 달성하는 것은 결합의 형성을 위한 주요 원동력입니다. 하지만 전자가 언제 공유되지 않고 전달될 지 어떻게 예측할 수 있을까요?

이를 위해 원자의 이온화 에너지와 전자 친화도를 조사합니다. 주기율표에서 s-블록의 금속들은 낮은 이온화 에너지를 가지고 있습니다. 이것은 전자를 더 쉽게 잃고 옥텟에 쉽게 도달하면서 동시에 양이온을 형성할 수 있도록 도와줍니다.

대조적으로 p-블록의 비금속들은 비활성 기체를 제외하고 전자 친화도가 높으며 전자를 쉽게 수용하여 음이온을 형성합니다. 반대의 전하를 가진 양이온과 음이온은 강한 정전기적 상호작용으로 서로 끌어당겨 이온 결합을 형성합니다. 이온들 사이의 강한 정전기 인력으로 인해 이온 화합물은 많은 경우 녹는점이 높은 단단하고 잘 정의된 결정 구조를 형성합니다.

리튬과 불소로 만들어진 이온 화합물인 플루오르화 리튬을 생각해 봅시다. 리튬이 전자를 잃고 듀엣 구조의 리튬 양이온이 될 때 전자는 불소에 흡수되어 옥텟 구조의 음이온을 형성합니다. 쿨롱의 법칙에 따르면 전하를 띤 이 두 개의 입자는 서로 끌어당겨 중성 화합물인 플루오르화 리튬을 형성합니다.

루이스 모형은 이온 화합물의 화학적 공식을 설명하고 예측하는 데 사용할 수 있습니다. 루이스 기호는 오른쪽 상단 모서리에 전하를 표시하며 괄호 안에 쓴 기호로 음이온과 양이온을 나타냅니다. 불꽃놀이에서 선명한 붉은 색을 얻기 위해 흔히 사용되는 염인 염화스트론튬을 생각해 봅시다.

스트론튬의 루이스 기호에는 2개의 홑전자가 있고 염소는 한 개의 홑전자가 있습니다. 옥텟에 도달하기 위해 스트론튬은 두 개의 전자를 잃어야 하는 반면 염소는 한 개의 전자를 얻어야 합니다. 따라서 1개의 스트론튬 양이온은 2개의 염화 음이온과 1:2의 비율로 결합됩니다.

이온결합과 전자전달

이온은 전하를 지닌 원자 또는 분자입니다. 양이온은 중성 원자가 원자가 껍질에서 하나 이상의 전자를 잃을 때 형성되고, 음이온은 중성 원자가 원자가 껍질에서 하나 이상의 전자를 얻을 때 형성됩니다. 이온으로 구성된 화합물을 이온성 화합물(또는 염)이라고 하며, 그 구성 이온은 이온 결합, 즉 반대 전하를 띤 양이온과 음이온 사이의 정전기적 인력에 의해 서로 결합됩니다.

이온 화합물의 특성

이온 화합물의 특성은 이온 결합의 특성을 밝혀줍니다.

<ol style="list-style-type: disc;">
	<li>이온성 고체는 결정 구조를 나타내며 단단하고 부서지기 쉬운 경향이 있습니다. 또한 녹는점과 끓는점이 높은 경향이 있는데, 이는 이온 결합이 매우 강하다는 것을 의미합니다.</li>
	<li>이온성 고체도 같은 이유로 열악한 전기 전도체입니다. 이온 결합의 강도는 이온이 고체 상태에서 자유롭게 움직이는 것을 방지합니다.</li>
	<li>그러나 대부분의 이온성 고체는 물에 쉽게 용해됩니다. 일단 용해되거나 녹으면 이온 화합물은 이온이 자유롭게 이동할 수 있기 때문에 우수한 전기 및 열 전도체입니다.</li>
</ol>

이온 화합물의 형성

많은 금속 원소는 이온화 전위가 상대적으로 낮고 전자를 쉽게 잃습니다. 이 원소는 주기율표에서 주기의 왼쪽이나 족의 맨 아래 근처에 있습니다. 비금속 원자는 상대적으로 높은 전자 친화력을 가지므로 금속 원자에 의해 손실된 전자를 쉽게 얻어 원자가 껍질을 채웁니다. 비금속 원소는 주기율표의 오른쪽 상단에 있습니다.

모든 물질은 전기적으로 중성이어야 하므로 이온성 화합물의 양이온에 있는 총 양전하 수는 음이온에 있는 총 음전하 수와 같아야 합니다. 이온 화합물의 공식은 동일한 수의 양전하와 음전하를 생성하는 데 필요한 이온 수의 가장 간단한 비율을 나타냅니다.

이온 화합물은 규칙적으로 배열된 3차원 구조를 형성합니다.

그러나 이온 화합물의 공식은 이온의 물리적 배열을 나타내지 않는다는 점에 유의하는 것이 중요합니다. 나트륨 이온과 염화물 이온의 특정 쌍 사이에는 그 자체로 단일 이온 결합이 없기 때문에 염화나트륨(NaCl) "분자"를 언급하는 것은 올바르지 않습니다. 이온 사이의 인력은 등방성입니다. 즉, 모든 방향에서 동일합니다. 즉, 특정 이온이 근처에 있는 반대 전하의 모든 이온에 똑같이 끌어당겨진다는 의미입니다. 이로 인해 이온은 단단히 결합된 3차원 격자 구조로 배열됩니다. 예를 들어 염화나트륨은 같은 수의 Na^+ 양이온과 Cl^- 음이온이 규칙적으로 배열되어 있습니다. Na^+ 이온과 Cl^- 이온 사이의 강한 정전기적 인력은 고체 NaCl에서 이를 서로 단단히 결합시킵니다. 1몰의 고체 NaCl을 별도의 기체 Na^+ 및 Cl^- 이온으로 분리하려면 769 kJ의 에너지가 필요합니다.

양이온의 전자 구조

양이온을 형성할 때 주족 원소의 원자는 원자가 전자를 모두 잃는 경향이 있으므로 주기율표에서 앞에 있는 비활성 기체의 전자 구조를 가정합니다.

<ol style="list-style-type: disc;">
	<li>1족(알칼리 금속)과 2족(알칼리 토금속)의 경우, 족 번호는 원자가 껍질 전자의 수와 동일하며, 결과적으로 모든 원자가 껍질 전자가 이 원소의 원자로부터 형성된 양이온의 전하와 같습니다. 제거됩니다.</li>
	<li>예를 들어, 칼슘은 중성 원자가 20개의 전자와 1s^22s^22p^63s^23p^64s^2의 바닥 상태 전자 구성을 갖는 2족 원소입니다. Ca 원자가 원자가 전자를 모두 잃으면 결과적으로 18개의 전자, 2+ 전하 및 1s^22s^22p^63s^23p^6의 전자 구성을 갖는 양이온이 됩니다. 따라서 Ca2^+ 이온은 희가스 Ar과 등전자적입니다.</li>
	<li>족 13-17의 경우 족 번호는 원자가 전자 수를 10만큼 초과합니다(네 번째 및 그 이상의 주기에서 원소 원자의 전체 d 하위 껍질 가능성을 고려). 따라서 모든 원자가 전자의 손실로 인해 형성된 양이온의 전하는 족 수에서 10을 뺀 것과 같습니다. 예를 들어, 알루미늄(13족)은 3+ 이온(Al3+)을 형성합니다.</li>
</ol>

예외

<ol style="list-style-type: disc;">
	<li>예상되는 동작에 대한 예외에는 족의 맨 아래에 있는 요소가 포함됩니다.</li>
	<li>예상되는 이온 Tl^3+, Sn^4+, Pb^4+ 및 Bi^5+ 외에도 이러한 원자의 원자가 껍질 전자의 부분적 손실로 인해 Tl^+, Sn^2+, Pb^2+ 및 Bi^3+ 이온이 형성될 수도 있습니다. 이러한 1+, 2+ 및 3+ 양이온의 형성은 불활성 쌍 효과에 기인하며, 이는 13, 14 및 15족의 중원소 원자에 대한 원자가 s-전자쌍의 상대적으로 낮은 에너지를 반영합니다.</li>
	<li>수은(12족)도 예상치 못한 행동을 보입니다. 예상되는 단원자 이온 Hg^2+(단지 하나의 수은 원자로 형성됨) 외에 이원자 이온 Hg_2^2+(Hg-Hg 결합을 갖는 두 개의 수은 원자로 형성된 이온)을 형성합니다.</li>
	<li>전이 및 내부 전이 금속 요소는 주 그룹 요소와 다르게 동작합니다. 대부분의 전이 금속 양이온은 가장 바깥쪽의 s 전자를 먼저 손실하고 때로는 다음에서 가장 바깥쪽 껍질에서 1개 또는 2개의 d 전자를 손실함으로써 발생하는 2+ 또는 3+ 전하를 갖습니다.</li>
	<li>Aufbau 원리에 따라 전이 요소의 d 궤도는 전자 구성을 구축할 때 마지막으로 채워지지만, 가장 바깥쪽의 s 전자는 이러한 원자가 이온화될 때 가장 먼저 손실됩니다. 내부 전이 금속이 이온을 형성할 때 일반적으로 가장 바깥쪽 s 전자와 d 또는 f 전자의 손실로 인해 3+ 전하를 갖습니다.</li>
</ol>

음이온의 전자 구조

대부분의 단원자 음이온은 중성 비금속 원자가 외부 s 및 p 궤도를 완전히 채울 만큼 충분한 전자를 얻어 다음 비활성 기체의 전자 구성에 도달할 때 형성됩니다. 따라서 이러한 음이온의 전하를 결정하는 것은 간단합니다. 전하는 모원자의 s 및 p 궤도를 채우기 위해 얻어야 하는 전자의 수와 같습니다. 예를 들어, 산소는 전자 배열 1s^22s^22p^4를 갖는 반면, 산소 음이온은 비활성 기체 네온(Ne), 1s^22s^22p^6의 전자 배열을 갖습니다. 원자가 궤도를 채우는 데 필요한 두 개의 추가 전자는 산화물 이온에 2-(O^2-) 전하를 부여합니다.

이 문서는 에서 발췌되었습니다 <a href="https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-2e/pages/7-1-ionic-bonding">Openstax, Chemistry 2e, Section 7.3: Ionic Bonding.</a>

이온은 전하를 띠는 원자 또는 분자입니다. 양이온 (양이온)은 중성 원자가 원자가에서 하나 이상의 전자를 잃을 때 형성됩니다 ...

Education

교육

JoVE Core

화학

하나

Chemical Bonding: Basic Concepts

화학 결합: 기본 개념

KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS

주요 용어 및 개념

ionic compounds and crystal lattices

Ionic compounds form when positive and negative ions attract each other. A cation is a positive ion, and it forms when an atom loses one or more valence electrons. An anion is a negative ion, and it forms when an atom gains one or more valence electrons. Compounds made of these ions are called ionic compounds, or salts, and the force between them is an ionic bond.

The properties of ionic solids help show how strong this attraction is. They usually form rigid, brittle crystals and have high melting and boiling points. They are also poor conductors of electricity in the solid state because the ions cannot move freely. Most ionic solids dissolve readily in water. When an ionic compound is melted or dissolved, it conducts electricity and heat well because the ions can move about freely.

Ionic compounds form most easily when metals lose electrons and nonmetals gain them. Many metals have low ionization potentials, so they lose electrons easily. These elements are found on the left side of the periodic table or near the bottom of a group. Nonmetals have high electron affinities, so they readily gain the electrons lost by metals. They are found in the upper-right corner of the periodic table.

Ionic compounds must remain electrically neutral. That means the total positive charge from the cations must equal the total negative charge from the anions. The formula of an ionic compound gives the simplest ratio of ions needed to balance charge. The formula does not show the physical layout of the ions. In solid sodium chloride, for example, the ions form a tightly bound three-dimensional lattice. The attraction between Na+ and Cl- ions is strong, and it takes 769 kJ of energy to separate one mole of solid NaCl into gaseous ions.

Main-group cations often form by losing all valence electrons and taking on the electron structure of the noble gas before them. For groups 1 and 2, the group number matches the number of valence electrons and also the charge of the ion formed. Calcium is a group 2 element. A neutral calcium atom has 20 electrons, and Ca2+ has 18 electrons with the same electron configuration as argon. For groups 13 through 17, the cation charge equals the group number minus 10. Aluminum, in group 13, forms Al3+.

Some heavy main-group elements do not follow the expected pattern exactly. Thallium, tin, lead, and bismuth can also form lower-charge ions such as Tl+, Sn2+, Pb2+, and Bi3+. This is explained by the inert pair effect, which reflects the relatively low energy of the valence s-electron pair in these heavy atoms. Mercury is another exception. It can form the diatomic ion Hg2^2+, which contains a Hg-Hg bond, as well as the monatomic ion Hg2+.

Transition metals and inner transition metals form ions in a different way. Most transition metal cations have 2+ or 3+ charges. These usually come from losing the outermost s electron or electrons first, and sometimes one or two d electrons after that. Even though d orbitals fill later according to the Aufbau principle, the outermost s electrons are lost first when transition metals ionize. Inner transition metals usually form 3+ ions by losing their outermost s electrons and one d or f electron.

Most monatomic anions form when a nonmetal atom gains enough electrons to fill its outer s and p orbitals. The charge on the ion equals the number of electrons needed to reach the next noble-gas electron configuration. Oxygen is a clear example. A neutral oxygen atom has the configuration 1s2 2s2 2p4. The oxide ion, O2-, has the neon configuration, 1s2 2s2 2p6, after gaining two electrons.

Ionic Compounds and Crystal Lattices

types of chemical bonds

Chemical Bonding and Bond Properties

Chemical bonding explains how atoms and ions join to form molecules and compounds. American chemist Gilbert N. Lewis pioneered chemical bonding theory with the Lewis model. This model helps explain why bonds form, why some are stronger than others, and why compounds have fixed formulas like H2O instead of H4O. Ionic bonding involves ions, which are atoms or molecules with an electrical charge. A cation is a positive ion formed when a neutral atom loses one or more electrons from its valence...

the born-haber cycle

Predicting Ionic Stability with Lattice Energy

Lattice energy helps explain why ionic compounds are stable. It measures the strength of attraction between positive and negative ions in a crystal. In one common definition, lattice energy is the energy required to separate one mole of an ionic solid into gaseous ions, so it has a positive value. Another definition uses the opposite sign and describes the energy released when gaseous ions form a lattice. When checking data, it is important to confirm which convention is being used. In either...

lewis symbols and the octet rule

Valence Electrons, Lewis Symbols, and Bonding

Chemical bonds form when atoms or ions interact in ways that lower the potential energy of a molecule. Gilbert N. Lewis created a simple model to show bond formation using valence electrons, the electrons in the outer shell. In this model, electrons are shared or transferred to help atoms reach a stable electron configuration. The Lewis model helps describe two common bond types. An ionic bond forms when electrons move from a metal to a nonmetal. A covalent bond forms when two nonmetals share...

electronegativity

Electronegativity and Polar Bonds

Electronegativity helps explain why some covalent bonds are nonpolar and others are polar covalent. It is a measure of how strongly an atom attracts shared electrons toward itself. That pull controls how electron density is distributed in a bond. Linus Pauling proposed the first electronegativity values by studying bond energies in heteronuclear molecules such as hydrogen fluoride. He expected the bond energy of HF to be about the average of the bond energies of H2 and F2, or 296 kJ/mol. The...

ionic bonding and electron transfer

Ionic compounds form when positive and negative ions attract each other. A cation is a positive ion, and it forms when an atom loses one or more valence electrons. An anion is a negative ion, and it forms when an atom gains one or more valence electrons. Compounds made of these ions are called ionic compounds, or salts, and the force between them is an ionic bond. The properties of ionic solids help show how strong this attraction is. They usually form rigid, brittle crystals and have high...

trends in lattice energy: ion size and charge

trends-in-lattice-energy-ion-size-and-charge

Lattice Energy Patterns in Ionic Solids

Lattice energy shows how strongly ions hold an ionic solid together. It is the energy required to separate one mole of a solid into its gaseous ions. For sodium chloride, this process requires 769 kJ per mole. The opposite convention may also be used, where lattice energy is the energy released when gaseous ions form the solid. In either case, a larger magnitude means a more stable ionic compound. For ionic crystals, lattice energy follows a pattern based on charge and ion size. The...

covalent bonding and lewis structures

Shared Electrons in Covalent Molecules

Covalent molecules form when atoms share electrons instead of transferring them. This bonding usually happens between nonmetal atoms with similar tendencies to attract electrons. Because the atoms pull on the electrons in a shared way, the bond is held together by mutual attraction. Covalent compounds often have physical properties that differ from ionic compounds. The attraction between neutral molecules is weaker than the attraction between charged ions. As a result, many covalent compounds...

bond polarity, dipole moment, and percent ionic character

bond-polarity-dipole-moment-and-percent-ionic-character

How Bond Polarity Shapes Molecular Dipoles

Bond polarity depends on electronegativity, the ability of an atom to attract shared electrons. The absolute value of the electronegativity difference, or ΔEN, gives a rough guide to bond type. When the difference is very small or zero, the bond is covalent and nonpolar. When it is larger, the bond may be polar covalent or ionic. Examples show how this works in real compounds. H–H has a ΔEN of 0, so it is nonpolar. H–Cl has a ΔEN of 0.9, so it is polar covalent. Na–Cl has a ΔEN of 2.1, so it...

lewis structures of molecular compounds and polyatomic ions

lewis-structures-of-molecular-compounds-and-polyatomic-ions

Drawing Lewis Structures with Valence Electron Counts

Drawing Lewis structures starts with counting valence electrons and building the atom arrangement step by step. Valence electrons are the outer-shell electrons that help show how atoms bond. For ions, a positive charge means one electron is removed for each plus sign, and a negative charge means one electron is added for each minus sign. The next step is to sketch the skeleton structure. The least electronegative atom usually goes in the center, while hydrogen is almost never central. Fluorine...

resonance

Resonance Forms in Lewis Structures

Resonance forms in Lewis structures help explain molecules and ions that cannot be shown correctly with just one drawing. In nitrite ion, NO2−, the Lewis structure can be drawn in two ways. The N-O and N=O bonds switch positions in the two drawings, but the atoms stay in the same arrangement. If nitrite really had one single bond and one double bond, the two bond lengths should be different. A double bond is shorter and stronger than a single bond between the same atoms. Experiments show that...

formal charges

Lewis Structures with Formal Charge

Lewis structures can sometimes show more than one reasonable arrangement for a molecule or polyatomic ion. Formal charge helps chemists choose the best Lewis structure when that happens. It is a useful way to compare possible structures in chemistry. Formal charge is the hypothetical charge an atom would have if bonding electrons were shared evenly between the atoms. It can also be found by starting with the valence electrons of the neutral atom, subtracting the nonbonding electrons, and then...

exceptions to the octet rule

Octet Rule Exceptions in Lewis Structures

Some covalent molecules do not follow the octet rule in their Lewis structures. Their central atoms can fall into three groups: odd-electron molecules, electron-deficient molecules, and hypervalent molecules. These cases show why a Lewis structure may not always give every atom eight valence electrons. Odd-electron molecules have an odd number of valence electrons, so one electron remains unpaired. Molecules with an odd number of electrons are called radicals. Nitric oxide, NO, is one example,...

bond energies and bond lengths

How Bond Energy Predicts Reaction Heat

Bond energy helps explain why molecules stay together and how much heat a reaction may release or absorb. A covalent bond is stronger when more energy is needed to separate the atoms. The energy needed to break one specific covalent bond in one mole of gaseous molecules is called bond energy, or bond dissociation energy. For a diatomic molecule, bond energy is the standard enthalpy change for an endothermic reaction that breaks that bond. The H-H bond is a common example. Its bond energy is...

bonding in metals

Electron Sea Model in Metals

Electron sea model explains how metallic bonding holds metals together. In this model, most metal atoms do not have enough valence electrons to form ionic or covalent bonds in the usual way. Their valence electrons are held loosely because metals have low electronegativity, and their ionization energy is low, so electrons are removed easily. When a metal atom loses these outer electrons, it becomes a positively charged metal ion. The freed electrons form a delocalized electron cloud around...

key terms and concepts

Explore how ions form, why ionic compounds make crystal lattices, and how charge, conductivity, and electron configurations shape ionic behavior in chemistry.

Ionic Compounds and Crystal Lattices | JoVE K12

chemistry

JoVE Core 화학은 간결하고 이해하기 쉬운 애니메이션을 통해 일반 화학 개념을 설명합니다. 또한, 과학자가 직접 고전실험과 연구실험을 진행하는 실사 영상을 제공합니다.

Physical Science

PS.PSc.2.1

Pennsylvania State Academic Standards

Structure and Properties of Matter

3.2.9-12.B

3.2.9-12.N

Louisiana Student Standards for Science

High School

Matter And Its Interactions

HS-PS1-3

ohios-learning-standards-and-model-curriculum

Ohio’s Learning Standards and Model Curriculum

Study Of Matter

Bonding and compounds

Structure And Properties Of Matter

Chemical bonding

Physical Geology

Minerals

Chemical bonding (ionic, covalent, metallic)

Tennessee Academic Standards

Matter and Its Interactions

CHEM1.PS1.13

CHEM1.PS1.14

motion-and-stability-forces-and-interactions

Motion and Stability: Forces and Interactions

CHEM1.PS2.1

Virginia  Standards of Learning

HIgh School

CH.3

CH.3.d

PS.3

PS.3.c

Physics

PH.9

PH.9.e

Minnesota Academic Standards in Science

1.2.1 9L.4.2.2.1

Arizona Science Standards

HS.P1

HS.P1U1.2

new-jersey-student-learning-standards-for-science

New Jersey Student Learning Standards for Science

HS-PS1-2

Alabama Course of Study Science

9-12.C.2.2.b

Florida Department of Education

SC.912.P.8

SC.912.P.8.6

Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills

Chemistry and Physics

IPC.7

IPC.7.A

new-york-state-science-learning-standards

New York State Science Learning Standards

HS. Structure and Properties of Matter

HS-PS1-3.

HS. Chemical Reactions

HS-PS1-2.

Georgia Standards of Excellence

SPS2.

Chemical Bonds

SC2.

bonding-types-from-nonpolar-covalent-to-ionic

Bonding Types: From Nonpolar Covalent to Ionic

Scientific Laws and Theories

Scientific Laws

In science, a law is defined as a concise, verbal or mathematical, statement that summarizes a vast number of experimental observations. ...

The Scientific Method

Chemistry is an empirical science. Scientists often pose questions to understand the chemistry in everyday life and seek answers to these questions. To ...

Classifying Matter by State

Chemistry is the study of matter and the changes it undergoes. Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space. Matter is all around us; the air, ...

Classifying Matter by Composition

Matter: Pure Substances and Mixtures
According to its composition, the matter can be classified into two broad categories &mdash; pure substances and ...

The Atomic Theory of Matter

The earliest recorded discussion of the basic structure of matter comes from ancient Greek philosophers. Leucippus and Democritus argued that all matter ...

Subatomic Particles

Dalton was only partially correct about the particles that make up matter. All matter is composed of atoms, and atoms are composed of three smaller ...

Elements: Chemical Symbols and Isotopes

A chemical symbol is an abbreviation used to indicate an element or an atom of an element. For example, the symbol for mercury is Hg. The same symbol is ...

Use models to explain how the scientific understanding of atomic structure has evolved.

PS.Chm.1.1

Radioactivity and Nuclear Equations

Nuclear chemistry is the study of reactions that involve changes in nuclear structure. The nucleus of an atom is composed of protons and, except for ...

Types of Radioactivity

The most common types of radioactivity are &#945; decay, &#946; decay, &#947; decay, neutron emission, and electron capture.
Alpha (&#945;) decay is the ...

Nuclear Stability

Protons and neutrons, collectively called nucleons, are packed together tightly in a nucleus. With a radius of about 10&#8722;15 meters, a nucleus is ...

Nuclear Binding Energy

The difference between the calculated and experimentally measured masses is known as the mass defect of the atom. In the case of helium-4, the mass defect ...

Radioactive Decay and Radiometric Dating

Radioactivity is a spontaneous disintegration of an unstable nuclide and is a random process, as all the nuclei in the sample do not decay simultaneously. ...

Nuclear Fission

Many heavier elements with smaller binding energies per nucleon can decompose into more stable elements that have intermediate mass numbers and larger ...

Nuclear Power

Controlled nuclear fission reactions are used to generate electricity. Any nuclear reactor that produces power via the fission of uranium or plutonium by ...

Nuclear Fusion

The process of converting very light nuclei into heavier nuclei is also accompanied by the conversion of mass into large amounts of energy, a process ...

Nuclear Transmutation

Nuclear transmutation is the conversion of one nuclide into another. It can occur by the radioactive decay of a nucleus, or the reaction of a nucleus with ...

Use models to compare nuclear reactions including alpha decay, beta decay and gamma decay; nuclear fusion and nuclear fission.

PS.Chm.1.2

Atomic Orbitals

An atomic orbital represents the three-dimensional regions in an atom where an electron has the highest probability to reside. The radial distribution ...

The Pauli Exclusion Principle

The arrangement of electrons in the orbitals of an atom is called its electron configuration. We describe an electron configuration with a symbol that ...

The Energies of Atomic Orbitals

In an atom, the negatively charged electrons are attracted to the positively charged nucleus. In a multielectron atom, electron-electron repulsions are ...

The Aufbau Principle and Hund's Rule

To determine the electron configuration for any particular atom, we can build the structures in the order of atomic numbers. Beginning with hydrogen, and ...

electron-configuration-of-multielectron-atoms

Electron Configuration of Multielectron Atoms

The alkali metal sodium (atomic number 11) has one more electron than the neon atom. This electron must go into the lowest-energy subshell available, the ...

Use models to explain how electrons are distributed in atoms.

PS.Chm.1.3

Periodic Classification of the Elements

The periodic table arranges atoms based on increasing atomic number so that elements with the same chemical properties recur periodically. When their ...

The Periodic Table

As early chemists discovered more elements, they realized that various elements could be grouped by their similar chemical behaviors. One such grouping ...

Atomic Mass

Atoms &mdash; and the protons, neutrons, and electrons that compose them &mdash; are extremely small. For example, a carbon atom weighs less than 2 ...

Molar Mass

The identity of a substance is defined not only by the types of atoms or ions it contains but by the quantity of each type of atom or ion. For example, ...

Use the Periodic Table as a model to predict the relative properties of elements based on the pattern of valence electrons in the outermost energy levels of atoms.

PS.Chm.2.1

atomic-radii-and-effective-nuclear-charge

Atomic Radii and Effective Nuclear Charge

The elements in groups of the periodic table exhibit similar chemical behavior. This similarity occurs because the members of a group have the same number ...

Ionic Radii

Ionic radius is the measure used to describe the size of an ion. A cation always has fewer electrons and the same number of protons as the parent atom; it ...

Construct an explanation to infer the atomic size, reactivity, electronegativity, and ionization energy of an element based on its position in the Periodic Table.

PS.Chm.2.2

Analyze the structure of atoms and isotopes.

Ionic Compounds and Crystal Lattices

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