Name: predicting ionic stability with lattice energy
Uploaded: 2020-09-03T13:38:28.000Z
Duration: 2 min 44 s
Channel: JoVE

K12 Standards

north-carolina-k-12-science-standard-course-of-study

North Carolina K-12 Science Standard Course of Study

9-12

Chemistry

Matter and its Interactions

PS.Chm.3.1

The Born-Haber Cycle

이온 결합을 형성하려면 금속에서 비금속 원자에로 전자를 전달해야 하는데 이것은 종종 흡열 과정입니다. 하지만 나트륨 원소와 염소 원소가 반응하여 고체 염화 나트륨 결정체를 형성할 때 그것은 높은 발열 과정입니다. 하지만 에너지는 어디에서 오는 것일까요?

쿨롱의 법칙에 따르면 양이온과 음이온은 강한 정전기력에 의해 서로 끌어당겨 단단한 배열 또는 격자를 구성합니다. 결과로 생기는 격자 구조는 발열 반응에 의해 열을 방출시켜 위치 에너지를 감소시킴으로써 안정화됩니다. 결정 격자가 형성될 때 또는 그것을 이루는 기체 상태의 성분으로 분해되는 과정과 관련된 총 에너지를 격자 에너지라고 합니다.

고체 이온 화합물에서는 많은 수의 전하 입자가 서로 상호작용하기 때문에 격자 에너지의 정확한 값을 실험적으로 판단하기가 어렵습니다. 그러나 구성 요소로부터의 이온 화합물의 형성을 나타내는 보른-하버 순환이라고 불리는 가상적인 일련의 단계에서 헤스의 법칙을 이용하여 계산할 수 있습니다. 예를 들어 염화나트륨 생성을 위한 보른-하버 순환은 두 가지 대체 경로를 고려합니다.

하나는 직접 경로이고 다른 하나는 간접 경로입니다. 직접 경로는 나트륨 원소와 염소 원소로부터 NaCl 표준 생성 엔탈피를 나타냅니다. 간접 경로는 5단계를 포함합니다.

첫 번째 단계에서 고체 상태의 나트륨은 기체 형태로 변환됩니다. 다음으로 이원자 염소 분자를 기체 염소 원자로 분리합니다. 세 번째와 네 번째 단계에서는 전자 전이를 처리하여 이온을 형성합니다.

기체 나트륨에서 전자가 제거되어 나트륨 양이온을 형성합니다. 그런 다음 전자는 기체 염소에 의해 흡수되어 염화 음이온을 형성합니다. 마지막 단계에서 기체 이온 사이의 정전기적 인력에 의해 격자 구조가 형성됩니다.

헤스의 법칙에 따르면 단계적 과정에서 전반적인 엔탈피의 변화는 각 단계의 엔탈피 변화의 합계입니다. 이것은 직접 경로의 엔탈피 값은 다섯 단계의 엔탈피 값들의 합계와 같다는 것을 의미합니다. 격자 에너지에 대한 방정식을 풀면 큰 음의 값이 결정되는데 이는 반응이 발열 반응임을 나타냅니다.

본-하버 사이클

래티스 에너지

이온 화합물은 양이온과 음이온 사이의 정전기적 인력으로 인해 안정적입니다. 화합물의 격자 에너지는 이러한 인력의 강도를 나타내는 척도입니다. 이온성 화합물의 격자 에너지(ΔH_lattice)는 고체 1몰을 성분 기체 이온으로 분리하는 데 필요한 에너지로 정의됩니다.

여기서는 이온성 고체가 이온으로 분리되는 경우에 규칙이 사용됩니다. 이는 격자 에너지가 흡열(양수 값)이 됨을 의미합니다. 또 다른 방법은 동일하지만 반대되는 관례를 사용하는 것입니다. 여기서 격자 에너지는 발열(음수 값)이며 이온이 결합하여 격자를 형성할 때 방출되는 에너지로 설명됩니다. 따라서 다른 참고자료에서 격자에너지를 찾아볼 때 어떤 정의가 사용되는지 꼭 확인하시기 바랍니다.

두 경우 모두 격자 에너지의 크기가 클수록 이온 화합물이 더 안정하다는 것을 나타냅니다. 염화나트륨의 경우 ΔH_lattice = 769 kJ입니다. 따라서 고체 NaCl 1몰을 기체 Na^+ 및 Cl^- 이온으로 분리하려면 769 kJ가 필요합니다. 기체 Na^+ 및 Cl^- 이온 1몰이 각각 고체 NaCl을 형성할 때 769 kJ의 열이 방출됩니다.

이온 화합물의 격자 에너지 측정

격자 에너지를 직접 측정하는 것은 불가능합니다. 그러나 격자 에너지는 열화학 사이클을 사용하여 계산할 수 있습니다. Born-Haber 주기는 이온성 고체의 형성을 일련의 개별 단계로 나누는 헤스의 법칙을 적용한 것입니다.

<table style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">
	<tbody style="border: 1px solid black;">
		<tr>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">Cs의 승화의 엔탈피 (s)</td>
			<td colspan="2" style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">Cs (s)→ Cs (g)</td>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">Δ H = ΔHs° = 76.5 kJ/mol</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">F2 채권 에너지의 절반</td>
			<td colspan="2" style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">1/2 F2 (g)→ F (g)</td>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">Δ H = 1/2 D = 79.4 kJ/몰</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">Cs의 이온화 에너지 (g)</td>
			<td colspan="2" style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">Cs (g)→ Cs+ (g) + e-</td>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">ΔH = IE = 375.7 kJ/몰</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">F의 전자 선호도</td>
			<td colspan="2" style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">F (g)+ e- → F- (g)</td>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">ΔH = EA = -328.2 kJ/mol</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">CsF의 격자 에너지의 음수 (들)</td>
			<td colspan="2" style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">Cs+ (g)+ F- (g) → CsF (s)</td>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">ΔH = -ΔH격자 = ?</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">CsF (s)의형성의 엔탈피, 단계 1-5 추가</td>
			<td colspan="2" style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">Δ H = ΔHf° = ΔHs°+ 1/2D + IE +(EA)+ (-δH격자) 
			Cs (s)+ 1/2 F2 (g)→ CsF (s)</td>
			<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">ΔH = -553.5 kJ/몰</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

<ol>
	<li>가장 일반적인 상태인 Cs(s)와 F_2(g)의 원소를 생각해 보세요.</li>
	<li>ΔH_s°는 고체 세슘이 기체로 변환(승화)되는 것을 나타내며, 이온화 에너지는 기체 세슘 원자를 양이온으로 변환합니다.</li>
	<li>다음 단계에서는 불소 원자를 생성하기 위해 F-F 결합을 끊는 데 필요한 에너지를 고려해야 합니다.</li>
	<li>불소 원자 1몰을 불소 이온으로 전환시키는 것은 발열 과정이므로 이 단계에서 에너지(전자 친화도)가 방출됩니다.</li>
	<li>이제 1몰의 Cs 양이온과 1몰의 F 음이온이 존재합니다. 이 이온들은 결합하여 고체 불화세슘을 생성합니다. 이 단계의 엔탈피 변화는 격자 에너지의 음수이므로 발열량이기도 합니다.</li>
	<li>이 변환에 포함된 총 에너지는 해당 원소로부터 화합물의 실험적으로 결정된 형성 엔탈피 ΔH_f°와 같습니다. 이 경우 전체적인 변화는 발열적입니다.</li>
</ol>

이온 화합물에 대해 계산된 격자 에너지는 일반적으로 공유 결합에 대해 측정된 결합 해리 에너지보다 훨씬 높습니다. 격자 에너지는 일반적으로 600 – 4000 kJ/mol(일부는 더 높음) 범위에 속하는 반면, 공유 결합 해리 에너지는 일반적으로 단일 결합의 경우 150 – 400 kJ/mol 사이입니다. 그러나 이는 직접적으로 비교할 수 있는 값이 아니라는 점을 명심하십시오. 이온 화합물의 경우, 양이온과 음이온이 확장된 격자에 함께 뭉쳐져 있기 때문에 격자 에너지는 많은 상호 작용과 연관되어 있습니다. 공유 결합의 경우 결합 해리 에너지는 두 원자의 상호 작용과 관련이 있습니다.

이온 반경과 전하의 함수로서의 격자 에너지

이온 결정의 격자 에너지는 이온 전하가 증가하고 이온 크기가 감소함에 따라 급격히 증가합니다. 다른 모든 매개변수가 일정하게 유지되면 양이온과 음이온의 전하가 두 배로 늘어나 격자 에너지가 네 배로 늘어납니다. 예를 들어, LiF(Z^+ 및 Z^– = 1)의 격자 에너지는 1023 kJ/mol인 반면, MgO(Z^+ 및 Z^– = 2)의 격자 에너지는 3900 kJ/mol입니다(R_o = 이온 간 거리는 다음의 합으로 정의됨). 양이온과 음이온의 반경은 거의 동일합니다. 두 화합물 모두 약 200pm입니다.

서로 다른 원자간 거리는 서로 다른 격자 에너지를 생성합니다. 예를 들어, MgF_2(2957 kJ/mol)의 격자 에너지를 MgI_2(2327 kJ/mol)의 격자 에너지와 비교해 보십시오. 이는 I-에 비해 F^-의 더 작은 이온 크기가 격자 에너지에 미치는 영향을 보여줍니다.

Born-Haber Cycle의 다른 응용

Born-Haber 주기는 나머지를 알고 있는 경우 격자 에너지 방정식의 다른 양 중 하나를 계산하는 데에도 사용할 수 있습니다. 예를 들어 관련 승화 엔탈피 ΔH_s°, 이온화 에너지(IE), 결합 해리 엔탈피(D), 격자 에너지 ΔH_lattice 및 표준 형성 엔탈피 ΔH_f°를 알려져 있다면, Born-Haber 주기를 사용하여 원자의 전자 친화도를 결정할 수 있습니다.

이 문서는 에서 발췌되었습니다 <a href="https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-2e/pages/7-5-strengths-of-ionic-and-covalent-bonds">Openstax, Chemistry 2e, Section 7.5: Strengths of Ionic and Covalent Bonds.</a>

래티스 에너지 

이온 화합물은 양이온과 음이온 사이의 정전기 인력으로 인해 안정적입니다. 의 격자 에너지 ...

Education

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JoVE Core

화학

하나

Chemical Bonding: Basic Concepts

화학 결합: 기본 개념

KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS

주요 용어 및 개념

predicting ionic stability with lattice energy

Lattice energy helps explain why ionic compounds are stable. It measures the strength of attraction between positive and negative ions in a crystal. In one common definition, lattice energy is the energy required to separate one mole of an ionic solid into gaseous ions, so it has a positive value. Another definition uses the opposite sign and describes the energy released when gaseous ions form a lattice. When checking data, it is important to confirm which convention is being used. In either case, a larger lattice energy magnitude means a more stable ionic compound.

Sodium chloride gives a simple example. Its lattice energy is 769 kJ/mol, which means 769 kJ is needed to pull one mole of solid NaCl apart into Na+ and Cl- ions in the gas phase. The same amount of heat is released when those ions come together to form solid NaCl. This value shows how strongly the ions attract each other in the crystal.

Lattice energy cannot be measured directly. Instead, it is found with a thermochemical cycle. The Born-Haber cycle uses Hess’s law to break the formation of an ionic solid into separate steps. For cesium fluoride, these steps include sublimation of Cs(s) to Cs(g), half of the F2 bond energy to make F(g), ionization of Cs(g) to Cs+(g) plus an electron, electron affinity of F(g) to make F-(g), and formation of solid CsF from the gaseous ions. The enthalpy change for forming the lattice is the negative of the lattice energy.

For CsF, the overall reaction Cs(s) + 1/2 F2(g) -&gt; CsF(s) has a standard enthalpy of formation of -553.5 kJ/mol. The cycle combines the sublimation enthalpy of cesium, 76.5 kJ/mol, one-half of the F2 bond energy, 79.4 kJ/mol, the ionization energy of cesium, 375.7 kJ/mol, and the electron affinity of fluorine, -328.2 kJ/mol, with the lattice term. Because the total is exothermic, energy is released overall when the solid forms from the elements in their most common states, Cs(s) and F2(g).

Lattice energies for ionic compounds are usually much larger than bond dissociation energies for covalent bonds. Ionic lattice energies often fall between 600 and 4000 kJ/mol, and some are even higher. Single covalent bond dissociation energies are usually about 150 to 400 kJ/mol. These values are not directly comparable because lattice energy reflects many attractions in an extended crystal, while a covalent bond energy describes the interaction of just two atoms.

Ion charge and ion size strongly affect lattice energy. When all other factors stay the same, larger charges give much larger lattice energies, and smaller ions also increase lattice energy. Doubling the charge on both ions can quadruple the lattice energy. For example, LiF has a lattice energy of 1023 kJ/mol, while MgO is 3900 kJ/mol, even though their interionic distances are nearly the same at about 200 pm. Size also matters in compounds such as MgF2 and MgI2, where the smaller F- ion leads to a higher lattice energy than the larger I- ion.

The Born-Haber cycle can also solve for other unknowns in the lattice energy equation. If the other terms are known, the cycle can be used to find a missing quantity such as electron affinity. This makes the method useful for linking measured enthalpy values to the energy changes inside ionic compounds.

Predicting Ionic Stability with Lattice Energy

predicting-ionic-stability-with-lattice-energy

types of chemical bonds

Chemical Bonding and Bond Properties

Chemical bonding explains how atoms and ions join to form molecules and compounds. American chemist Gilbert N. Lewis pioneered chemical bonding theory with the Lewis model. This model helps explain why bonds form, why some are stronger than others, and why compounds have fixed formulas like H2O instead of H4O. Ionic bonding involves ions, which are atoms or molecules with an electrical charge. A cation is a positive ion formed when a neutral atom loses one or more electrons from its valence...

the born-haber cycle

Lattice energy helps explain why ionic compounds are stable. It measures the strength of attraction between positive and negative ions in a crystal. In one common definition, lattice energy is the energy required to separate one mole of an ionic solid into gaseous ions, so it has a positive value. Another definition uses the opposite sign and describes the energy released when gaseous ions form a lattice. When checking data, it is important to confirm which convention is being used. In either...

lewis symbols and the octet rule

Valence Electrons, Lewis Symbols, and Bonding

Chemical bonds form when atoms or ions interact in ways that lower the potential energy of a molecule. Gilbert N. Lewis created a simple model to show bond formation using valence electrons, the electrons in the outer shell. In this model, electrons are shared or transferred to help atoms reach a stable electron configuration. The Lewis model helps describe two common bond types. An ionic bond forms when electrons move from a metal to a nonmetal. A covalent bond forms when two nonmetals share...

electronegativity

Electronegativity and Polar Bonds

Electronegativity helps explain why some covalent bonds are nonpolar and others are polar covalent. It is a measure of how strongly an atom attracts shared electrons toward itself. That pull controls how electron density is distributed in a bond. Linus Pauling proposed the first electronegativity values by studying bond energies in heteronuclear molecules such as hydrogen fluoride. He expected the bond energy of HF to be about the average of the bond energies of H2 and F2, or 296 kJ/mol. The...

ionic bonding and electron transfer

Ionic Compounds and Crystal Lattices

Ionic compounds form when positive and negative ions attract each other. A cation is a positive ion, and it forms when an atom loses one or more valence electrons. An anion is a negative ion, and it forms when an atom gains one or more valence electrons. Compounds made of these ions are called ionic compounds, or salts, and the force between them is an ionic bond. The properties of ionic solids help show how strong this attraction is. They usually form rigid, brittle crystals and have high...

trends in lattice energy: ion size and charge

trends-in-lattice-energy-ion-size-and-charge

Lattice Energy Patterns in Ionic Solids

Lattice energy shows how strongly ions hold an ionic solid together. It is the energy required to separate one mole of a solid into its gaseous ions. For sodium chloride, this process requires 769 kJ per mole. The opposite convention may also be used, where lattice energy is the energy released when gaseous ions form the solid. In either case, a larger magnitude means a more stable ionic compound. For ionic crystals, lattice energy follows a pattern based on charge and ion size. The...

covalent bonding and lewis structures

Shared Electrons in Covalent Molecules

Covalent molecules form when atoms share electrons instead of transferring them. This bonding usually happens between nonmetal atoms with similar tendencies to attract electrons. Because the atoms pull on the electrons in a shared way, the bond is held together by mutual attraction. Covalent compounds often have physical properties that differ from ionic compounds. The attraction between neutral molecules is weaker than the attraction between charged ions. As a result, many covalent compounds...

bond polarity, dipole moment, and percent ionic character

bond-polarity-dipole-moment-and-percent-ionic-character

How Bond Polarity Shapes Molecular Dipoles

Bond polarity depends on electronegativity, the ability of an atom to attract shared electrons. The absolute value of the electronegativity difference, or ΔEN, gives a rough guide to bond type. When the difference is very small or zero, the bond is covalent and nonpolar. When it is larger, the bond may be polar covalent or ionic. Examples show how this works in real compounds. H–H has a ΔEN of 0, so it is nonpolar. H–Cl has a ΔEN of 0.9, so it is polar covalent. Na–Cl has a ΔEN of 2.1, so it...

lewis structures of molecular compounds and polyatomic ions

lewis-structures-of-molecular-compounds-and-polyatomic-ions

Drawing Lewis Structures with Valence Electron Counts

Drawing Lewis structures starts with counting valence electrons and building the atom arrangement step by step. Valence electrons are the outer-shell electrons that help show how atoms bond. For ions, a positive charge means one electron is removed for each plus sign, and a negative charge means one electron is added for each minus sign. The next step is to sketch the skeleton structure. The least electronegative atom usually goes in the center, while hydrogen is almost never central. Fluorine...

resonance

Resonance Forms in Lewis Structures

Resonance forms in Lewis structures help explain molecules and ions that cannot be shown correctly with just one drawing. In nitrite ion, NO2−, the Lewis structure can be drawn in two ways. The N-O and N=O bonds switch positions in the two drawings, but the atoms stay in the same arrangement. If nitrite really had one single bond and one double bond, the two bond lengths should be different. A double bond is shorter and stronger than a single bond between the same atoms. Experiments show that...

formal charges

Lewis Structures with Formal Charge

Lewis structures can sometimes show more than one reasonable arrangement for a molecule or polyatomic ion. Formal charge helps chemists choose the best Lewis structure when that happens. It is a useful way to compare possible structures in chemistry. Formal charge is the hypothetical charge an atom would have if bonding electrons were shared evenly between the atoms. It can also be found by starting with the valence electrons of the neutral atom, subtracting the nonbonding electrons, and then...

exceptions to the octet rule

Octet Rule Exceptions in Lewis Structures

Some covalent molecules do not follow the octet rule in their Lewis structures. Their central atoms can fall into three groups: odd-electron molecules, electron-deficient molecules, and hypervalent molecules. These cases show why a Lewis structure may not always give every atom eight valence electrons. Odd-electron molecules have an odd number of valence electrons, so one electron remains unpaired. Molecules with an odd number of electrons are called radicals. Nitric oxide, NO, is one example,...

bond energies and bond lengths

How Bond Energy Predicts Reaction Heat

Bond energy helps explain why molecules stay together and how much heat a reaction may release or absorb. A covalent bond is stronger when more energy is needed to separate the atoms. The energy needed to break one specific covalent bond in one mole of gaseous molecules is called bond energy, or bond dissociation energy. For a diatomic molecule, bond energy is the standard enthalpy change for an endothermic reaction that breaks that bond. The H-H bond is a common example. Its bond energy is...

bonding in metals

Electron Sea Model in Metals

Electron sea model explains how metallic bonding holds metals together. In this model, most metal atoms do not have enough valence electrons to form ionic or covalent bonds in the usual way. Their valence electrons are held loosely because metals have low electronegativity, and their ionization energy is low, so electrons are removed easily. When a metal atom loses these outer electrons, it becomes a positively charged metal ion. The freed electrons form a delocalized electron cloud around...

key terms and concepts

Learn how lattice energy, ion charge, ion size, and the Born-Haber cycle help explain ionic stability and calculate values for compounds like CsF.

Predicting Ionic Stability with Lattice Energy | JoVE K12

chemistry

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ohios-learning-standards-and-model-curriculum

Ohio’s Learning Standards and Model Curriculum

Structure And Properties Of Matter

Chemical bonding

Tennessee Academic Standards

High School

Matter and Its Interactions

CHEM1.PS1.14

Virginia  Standards of Learning

HIgh School

CH.3

CH.3.d

Physics

PH.9

PH.9.e

Alabama Course of Study Science

motion-and-stability-forces-and-interactions

Motion and Stability: Forces and Interactions

9-12.C.2.2.b

Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills

Chemistry and Physics

IPC.7

IPC.7.A

new-york-state-science-learning-standards

New York State Science Learning Standards

Physical Science

HS. Structure and Properties of Matter

HS-PS1-3.

HS. Chemical Reactions

HS-PS1-2.

Georgia Standards of Excellence

SC2.

bonding-types-from-nonpolar-covalent-to-ionic

Bonding Types: From Nonpolar Covalent to Ionic

Scientific Laws and Theories

Scientific Laws

In science, a law is defined as a concise, verbal or mathematical, statement that summarizes a vast number of experimental observations. ...

The Scientific Method

Chemistry is an empirical science. Scientists often pose questions to understand the chemistry in everyday life and seek answers to these questions. To ...

Classifying Matter by State

Chemistry is the study of matter and the changes it undergoes. Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space. Matter is all around us; the air, ...

Classifying Matter by Composition

Matter: Pure Substances and Mixtures
According to its composition, the matter can be classified into two broad categories &mdash; pure substances and ...

The Atomic Theory of Matter

The earliest recorded discussion of the basic structure of matter comes from ancient Greek philosophers. Leucippus and Democritus argued that all matter ...

Subatomic Particles

Dalton was only partially correct about the particles that make up matter. All matter is composed of atoms, and atoms are composed of three smaller ...

Elements: Chemical Symbols and Isotopes

A chemical symbol is an abbreviation used to indicate an element or an atom of an element. For example, the symbol for mercury is Hg. The same symbol is ...

Use models to explain how the scientific understanding of atomic structure has evolved.

PS.Chm.1.1

Radioactivity and Nuclear Equations

Nuclear chemistry is the study of reactions that involve changes in nuclear structure. The nucleus of an atom is composed of protons and, except for ...

Types of Radioactivity

The most common types of radioactivity are &#945; decay, &#946; decay, &#947; decay, neutron emission, and electron capture.
Alpha (&#945;) decay is the ...

Nuclear Stability

Protons and neutrons, collectively called nucleons, are packed together tightly in a nucleus. With a radius of about 10&#8722;15 meters, a nucleus is ...

Nuclear Binding Energy

The difference between the calculated and experimentally measured masses is known as the mass defect of the atom. In the case of helium-4, the mass defect ...

Radioactive Decay and Radiometric Dating

Radioactivity is a spontaneous disintegration of an unstable nuclide and is a random process, as all the nuclei in the sample do not decay simultaneously. ...

Nuclear Fission

Many heavier elements with smaller binding energies per nucleon can decompose into more stable elements that have intermediate mass numbers and larger ...

Nuclear Power

Controlled nuclear fission reactions are used to generate electricity. Any nuclear reactor that produces power via the fission of uranium or plutonium by ...

Nuclear Fusion

The process of converting very light nuclei into heavier nuclei is also accompanied by the conversion of mass into large amounts of energy, a process ...

Nuclear Transmutation

Nuclear transmutation is the conversion of one nuclide into another. It can occur by the radioactive decay of a nucleus, or the reaction of a nucleus with ...

Use models to compare nuclear reactions including alpha decay, beta decay and gamma decay; nuclear fusion and nuclear fission.

PS.Chm.1.2

Atomic Orbitals

An atomic orbital represents the three-dimensional regions in an atom where an electron has the highest probability to reside. The radial distribution ...

The Pauli Exclusion Principle

The arrangement of electrons in the orbitals of an atom is called its electron configuration. We describe an electron configuration with a symbol that ...

The Energies of Atomic Orbitals

In an atom, the negatively charged electrons are attracted to the positively charged nucleus. In a multielectron atom, electron-electron repulsions are ...

The Aufbau Principle and Hund's Rule

To determine the electron configuration for any particular atom, we can build the structures in the order of atomic numbers. Beginning with hydrogen, and ...

electron-configuration-of-multielectron-atoms

Electron Configuration of Multielectron Atoms

The alkali metal sodium (atomic number 11) has one more electron than the neon atom. This electron must go into the lowest-energy subshell available, the ...

Use models to explain how electrons are distributed in atoms.

PS.Chm.1.3

Periodic Classification of the Elements

The periodic table arranges atoms based on increasing atomic number so that elements with the same chemical properties recur periodically. When their ...

The Periodic Table

As early chemists discovered more elements, they realized that various elements could be grouped by their similar chemical behaviors. One such grouping ...

Atomic Mass

Atoms &mdash; and the protons, neutrons, and electrons that compose them &mdash; are extremely small. For example, a carbon atom weighs less than 2 ...

Molar Mass

The identity of a substance is defined not only by the types of atoms or ions it contains but by the quantity of each type of atom or ion. For example, ...

Use the Periodic Table as a model to predict the relative properties of elements based on the pattern of valence electrons in the outermost energy levels of atoms.

PS.Chm.2.1

atomic-radii-and-effective-nuclear-charge

Atomic Radii and Effective Nuclear Charge

The elements in groups of the periodic table exhibit similar chemical behavior. This similarity occurs because the members of a group have the same number ...

Ionic Radii

Ionic radius is the measure used to describe the size of an ion. A cation always has fewer electrons and the same number of protons as the parent atom; it ...

Ionization Energy

The amount of energy required to remove the most loosely bound electron from a gaseous atom in its ground state is called its first ionization energy ...

Electron Affinity

The electron affinity (EA) is the energy change for adding an electron to a gaseous atom to form an anion (negative ion).



This process can be either ...

Construct an explanation to infer the atomic size, reactivity, electronegativity, and ionization energy of an element based on its position in the Periodic Table.

PS.Chm.2.2

Types of Chemical Bonds

Chemical bonding theories were pioneered by American chemist Gilbert&#xA0;N. Lewis. He developed a model called the Lewis model to explain the type and ...

Lewis Symbols and the Octet Rule

Chemical bonds are complex interactions between two or more atoms or ions, which reduce the potential energy of the molecule. Gilbert N. Lewis developed a ...

Ionic Bonding and Electron Transfer

Ions are atoms or molecules bearing an electrical charge. A cation (a positive ion) forms when a neutral atom loses one or more electrons from its valence ...

Lattice Energy&#xA0;

An ionic compound is stable because of the electrostatic attraction between its positive and negative ions. The lattice energy of a ...

Trends in Lattice Energy: Ion Size and Charge

An ionic compound is stable because of the electrostatic attraction between its positive and negative ions. The lattice energy of a compound is a measure ...

Covalent Bonding and Lewis Structures

Compared to ionic bonds, which results from the transfer of electrons between metallic and nonmetallic atoms, covalent bonds result from the mutual ...

Electronegativity

Whether a bond is nonpolar or polar covalent is determined by a property of the bonding atoms called electronegativity.&#xA0;

Electronegativity values of ...

Bond Polarity, Dipole Moment, and Percent Ionic Character

Bond Polarity

The absolute value of the difference in electronegativity (&Delta;EN) of two bonded atoms provides a rough measure of the polarity to be ...

Lewis Structures of Molecular Compounds and Polyatomic Ions

To draw Lewis structures for complicated molecules and molecular ions, it is helpful to follow a step-by-step procedure as outlined:


	Determine the ...

Resonance

The Lewis structure of a nitrite anion (NO2&minus;) may actually be drawn in two different ways, distinguished by the locations of the N-O and N=O ...

Formal Charges

In some cases, there are seemingly more than one valid Lewis structures for molecules and polyatomic ions. The concept of formal charges can be used to ...

Exceptions to the Octet Rule

Many covalent molecules have central atoms that do not have eight electrons in their Lewis structures. These molecules fall into three categories:


	...

Analyze and interpret data to explain the mechanisms and properties of the two main types of intramolecular (ionic and covalent) bonds.

Analyze the structure of atoms and isotopes.

Predicting Ionic Stability with Lattice Energy

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