Name: cytoplasmic inheritance in cells
Uploaded: 2020-11-23T11:47:35.000Z
Duration: 1 min 29 s
Channel: JoVE

K12 Standards

Alabama Course of Study Science

9-12

Biology

from-molecules-to-organisms-structures-and-processes

From Molecules to Organisms: Structures and Processes

9-12.B.1.3

Non-nuclear Inheritance

[내레이터] 진핵 생물 세포내에서,엽록체가 있는 식물 세포 소기관의 범주인 미토콘드리아 및 플라스티드는세포질에서 독립적으로 재생산되며그들의 생식과 기능을 지시하는 각각의 고유 유전자 세트를 가지고 있습니다.미토콘드리아 및 플라스티드 DNA는 작은 원형 DNA 분자의 형태를 취하며비핵 또는 세포질(cytoplasmic) DNA로 취급됩니다.일반적으로 핵은 각 염색체의 복제본이 두 개만 있지만,이와는 달리 각 소기관은 DNA의 동일한 복제본을 많이 가지고 있습니다.또한, 세포 분열 동안, 소기관은 무작위로 새로운 딸(daughter) 세포로 분리되므로,전달된 비핵 DNA는 어떤 정해진 패턴을 따르지 않습니다.동물과 대부분의 식물에서 번식하는 동안접합체에 있는 세포질은 난자에서 나옵니다.따라서 두 부모 모두 핵 DNA에 똑같이 기여하는 반면,비핵 DNA는 어머니에게서만 물려받습니다.이는 미토콘드리아의 돌연변이로 생긴 대사 장애와 같은특정 특성이 모계 쪽에서 추적될 수 있음을 의미합니다.또한, 잎 색깔같은 식물 특성중 물리적인 것은비핵 유전자가 관할하고, 처녀생식으로(uniparentally) 전달됩니다.

Miko, I. "비핵 유전자와 그 유전." Nature Education 1, no. 1 (2008). [<a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/non-nuclear-genes-and-their-inheritance-589">출처</a>]

파타나난(Patananan), 알렉산더 N.(Alexander N.), 팅샹 우(Ting-Hsiang Wu), 페이유 치우(Pei-Yu Chiou), 마이클 A. 테이텔(Michael A. Teitell). 2016. "미토콘드리아 게놈 수정." 세포 대사 23 (5): 785–96. [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cmet.2016.04.004">출처</a>]

비핵 유전

대부분의 DNA는 세포의 핵에 있습니다. 한편, 엽록체(chloroplast)나 미토콘드리아와 같은 세포질 속의 몇몇 세포기관(organelle)도 자신의 DNA를 가지고 있습니다. 이 세포기관은 핵 DNA와는 독립적으로 자신의 DNA를 복제합니다. 비핵 유전(non-nuclear inheritance)은 핵이 아닌 다른 구조에서 유전자가 유전되는 것을 말합니다.
 
 미토콘드리아는 식물과 동물 세포에 모두 존재합니다. 미토콘드리아는 포도당을 분해하여 세포 활동을 촉진하는 에너지를 형성하기 때문에 진핵 세포의 발전소로 여겨집니다. 미토콘드리아 DNA는 약 37개의 유전자로 구성되어 있으며, 그중 많은 유전자들은 산화적 인산화(oxidative phosphorylation)라고 불리는 과정에 기여합니다.
 
 엽록체는 식물과 조류(algae)에서 발견되며 광합성이 일어나는 장소입니다. 광합성은 엽록체가 햇빛으로부터 포도당을 생성하도록 합니다. 엽록체 DNA는 광합성에 관여하는 약 100개의 유전자로 구성되어 있습니다.
 
 핵에 있는 염색체 DNA와 달리, 엽록체와 미토콘드리아 DNA는 유기체의 유전 물질의 절반이 각 부모에게서 온다는 멘델의 가정을 따르지 않습니다. 이는 일반적으로 정자 세포가 수정 중에 미토콘드리아 DNA나 엽록체 DNA를 접합자(zygote)에 기여하지 않기 때문입니다.
 
 정자는 주로 반수체(haploid) 핵 염색체 집합만 접합자에 기여하는 반면, 난자는 핵 염색체 외에도 세포기관을 기여합니다. 접합자(그리고 식물 세포의 엽록체)는 일반적으로 난자에서만 미토콘드리아와 엽록체를 받습니다. 이를 모계유전(maternal inheritance)이라고 부르며, 모계유전은 비핵, 즉 외핵 유전의 한 종류입니다.
 
 왜 미토콘드리아와 엽록체는 그들만의 DNA를 가지고 있을까요? 일반적인 설명은 세포내 공생설(endosymbiotic theory)입니다. 세포내 공생설은 미토콘드리아와 엽록체가 한때 독립적인 원핵생물(prokaryote)이었다고 말합니다. 세포내 공생설은 또한 해당 원핵생물이 어느 시점에 숙주 진핵세포에 유입됐고 양쪽 모두에게 이익이 되는 공생 관계에 들어갔다고 간주합니다.

대부분의 DNA는 세포핵에 있습니다. 그러나 엽록체 및 미토콘드리아와 같은 세포 세포질의 일부 소기관도 ...

Education

교육

JoVE Core

Molecular Biology

분자생물학

Unit 1

제1단원

DNA Replication

DNA 복제

KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS

주요 용어 및 개념

cytoplasmic inheritance in cells

Cytoplasmic inheritance explains how some traits are passed through cell structures outside the nucleus. These traits come from organelles such as mitochondria and chloroplasts. They do not follow the usual nuclear pattern of inheritance.

Mitochondria and chloroplasts each contain their own DNA. Because of this, they can carry genetic information that affects cell function and certain visible traits. In high school biology, this topic helps explain why not all inherited traits come from chromosomes in the nucleus.

Cytoplasmic inheritance is often linked to the mother because the egg cell provides most of the cytoplasm to the embryo. That is why some traits appear to pass through the maternal line. Understanding this pattern is important for studying organelle genetics and unusual inheritance patterns.

Cytoplasmic Inheritance in Cells

replication in prokaryotes

Prokaryotic DNA Replication Steps

Prokaryotic DNA replication copies the chromosome before a cell divides. In bacteria, this process starts at a specific DNA site called the origin of replication. From there, the cell builds new DNA strands using enzymes that match each base with its partner. The DNA double helix first opens so replication can begin. As the strands separate, each original strand serves as a template. New nucleotides are added in a set order, which helps the cell make an accurate copy of its genetic material. <br...

replication in eukaryotes

Eukaryotic DNA Replication Steps

Eukaryotic DNA replication copies the genome before a cell divides. In eukaryotes, this process happens in a controlled sequence so each new cell can receive genetic information. Replication begins at specific sites on the DNA called origins. The DNA is opened, and each original strand serves as a template, meaning it guides the building of a new complementary strand. This sets up two DNA molecules from one original molecule. The process then continues as enzymes add matching nucleotides to...

dna base pairing

DNA Base Pair Rules

DNA base pairing follows specific rules that help DNA carry genetic information. In DNA, the bases pair in a regular way, with adenine matching thymine and cytosine matching guanine. These pairs fit together because of their chemical shapes and bonding patterns. These base pairs also support accurate DNA replication. When DNA copies itself, each strand can guide the formation of a new partner strand using the pairing rules. Understanding base pairing helps explain how DNA stays organized and...

the dna replication fork

DNA Replication Stress and Fork Stalling

DNA replication stress and fork stalling can disrupt the copying of a cell’s genome. The replication fork is the Y-shaped site where DNA strands separate and new complementary strands are made at the same time. This linked unwinding and synthesis helps cells duplicate DNA efficiently and with fewer errors. In organisms with small circular DNA, such as E. coli, replication often begins at a single origin. That setup creates two replication forks that move in opposite directions from the opening...

proofreading

Proofreading in DNA Replication

Proofreading in DNA replication helps keep DNA copying accurate. It is a built-in check that reduces mistakes as new DNA is made. DNA polymerase is the enzyme that carries out this checking during replication. When it adds a wrong nucleotide, it can remove the error and replace it with the correct one. This correction step helps maintain the correct DNA sequence. Proofreading is an important part of DNA replication because it supports genetic accuracy. By catching mistakes as they happen, the...

dna helicases

Helicase Motor Proteins in DNA Unwinding

Helicase motor proteins help unwind DNA during key cell processes. They use energy from ATP hydrolysis, which is the breakdown of ATP to release usable energy. This movement lets helicases separate DNA strands when the cell needs access to the genetic code. These enzymes are involved in DNA replication, repair, recombination, and transcription. Helicases are found in all living organisms, but their structure, function, and movement can differ. In prokaryotes, the DnaB helicase moves along the...

the replisome

DNA Replication Teams in the Replisome

DNA replication depends on the replisome, a coordinated complex of proteins that copies DNA with high accuracy. This DNA replication machinery brings many parts together so the leading and lagging strands can be made at the same time. A key idea in this process is the trombone model, proposed by Bruce Alberts in 1980. In this model, a loop forms on the lagging strand when a primer is made. The loop grows as an Okazaki fragment is synthesized, then falls apart when that fragment is finished.

lagging strand synthesis

Okazaki Fragments in DNA Replication

DNA replication uses a leading strand and a lagging strand, and they are made at different rates. The leading strand starts first. The lagging strand starts later, moves more slowly, and is made in pieces. The two strands also differ in direction and starting steps. Leading strand synthesis follows the opening replication fork. Lagging strand synthesis goes in the opposite direction. The leading strand needs one RNA primer, while the lagging strand needs multiple RNA primers. After priming,...

mismatch repair

Fixing DNA Copying Errors

Mismatch repair helps fix DNA copying errors after replication. When DNA is copied, small mistakes can slip through. This repair system finds those mismatches and corrects them before they become permanent changes. The process depends on a group of mutator proteins. These proteins work together to detect the error, remove the incorrect section, and help replace it with the proper DNA sequence. In this way, mismatch repair supports the accuracy of genetic information. If the repair system does...

dna topoisomerases

How Topoisomerases Untwist DNA

DNA topoisomerases are enzymes that untwist DNA when it becomes overcoiled during cell processes such as DNA replication and transcription. They help regulate positive and negative DNA supercoiling without changing the nucleotide sequence. Clockwise overwinding creates positively supercoiled DNA, while counterclockwise underwinding produces negatively supercoiled DNA. Topoisomerases are grouped into two main types. Type I topoisomerases act on one strand of double-stranded DNA, and they...

telomeres and telomerase

How Telomerase Protects Chromosome Ends

Telomerase helps protect chromosome ends during eukaryotic DNA replication. When the final primer is removed, a single-stranded DNA fragment can remain at the end of the chromosome. That piece cannot be copied in the same way as the rest of the strand because there is no 3' end for new DNA to attach to. If this end piece is not replaced, chromosomal DNA is gradually lost each time a cell divides. The exposed single-stranded DNA can also trigger a DNA damage response from enzymes that detect it.

non-nuclear inheritance

Cytoplasmic inheritance explains how some traits are passed through cell structures outside the nucleus. These traits come from organelles such as mitochondria and chloroplasts. They do not follow the usual nuclear pattern of inheritance. Mitochondria and chloroplasts each contain their own DNA. Because of this, they can carry genetic information that affects cell function and certain visible traits. In high school biology, this topic helps explain why not all inherited traits come from...

animal mitochondrial genetics

Animal Mitochondrial DNA and Inheritance

Animal mitochondrial DNA has its own genome, separate from nuclear DNA. It is a double-stranded, closed circular molecule with about 20,000 base pairs. One strand is the heavy, or H-strand, because it is rich in guanine. The other is the light, or L-strand, because it is rich in cytosine. Compared with nuclear DNA, mitochondrial DNA has very little non-coding sequence. It also has no introns. Its genes are packed closely together, and some even overlap. The D-loop is the main non-coding...

comparing mitochondrial, chloroplast, and prokaryotic genomes

comparing-mitochondrial-chloroplast-and-prokaryotic-genomes

How Organelle Genomes Resemble Bacteria

Mitochondrial and chloroplast genomes still keep several traits from their bacterial ancestors. They also show changes that happened after these organelles evolved inside eukaryotic cells. Eukaryotic cells are cells with a nucleus, while prokaryotes are cells without one. Like prokaryotic genomes, mitochondrial and chloroplast genomes do not bind with histone-like proteins. They also do not show the complex chromosome-like packaging seen in eukaryotes. Mitochondria and chloroplasts divide by...

export of mitochondrial and chloroplast genes

export-of-mitochondrial-and-chloroplast-genes

How Organelles Pass Genes to the Nucleus

Eukaryotic cells can carry three genetic systems: nuclear, mitochondrial, and chloroplast. Over time, many genes from mitochondria and chloroplasts have moved into the nucleus. In some plant species, this gene transfer is still happening. This movement has affected large parts of the genome in some organisms. About 18% of the Arabidopsis thaliana nuclear genome is thought to come from the chloroplast's cyanobacterial ancestor. In yeast, around 75% of the genome is derived from the...

single-strand dna binding proteins

How SSB Proteins Protect DNA Strands

Single-strand DNA-binding proteins, or SSB proteins, help protect DNA during replication. When double-stranded DNA is unwound, the two strands separate. SSB proteins bind to the exposed single strands and keep them stable. These proteins bind in a sequence-independent manner. That means the order of the nitrogenous bases does not have to follow a specific pattern for SSB proteins to attach. Their binding straightens single-stranded DNA and makes it more rigid. This support may help DNA...

key terms and concepts

Learn how mitochondria and chloroplasts pass traits outside the nucleus through cytoplasmic inheritance, a key pattern in high school biology.

Cytoplasmic Inheritance in Cells | JoVE K12

molecular biology

JoVE Core 분자생물학은 명확하고 간결한 애니메이션을 통해 분자 단계에서 일어나는 세포 과정을 설명합니다.또한, 과학자가 직접 실험을 진행하는 실사 영상을 통해 분자생물학 개념의 응용 사례를 보여줍니다.

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1. Engage in evidence-based argument to relate a cell's function to the structure, function, and diversity of its components. Examples: Muscle cells have a large number of mitochondria, which create energy for contraction in the form of ATP. Some plant cells have a large vacuole which is used for storage and transport of excess nutrients in changing environments.

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Alternative RNA Splicing

Nuclear Export of mRNA

Transfer RNA Synthesis

Ribosomal RNA Synthesis

The Nucleolus

Additional Subnuclear Structures

Translation

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tRNA Activation

Initiation of Translation

Termination of Translation

Improving Translational Accuracy

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Nonsense-mediated mRNA Decay

The Eukaryotic Promoter Region

Molecular Chaperones and Protein Folding

Co-activators and Co-repressors

The Proteasome

Master Transcription Regulators

Regulated Protein Degradation

Regulated mRNA Transport

Proteins: From Genes to Degradation

mRNA Stability and Gene Expression

Cell Specific Gene Expression

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9-12.B.1.2

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a. Use a model to describe the structure and sequence of DNA, including nucleotide structure, base pairing, and the structure of the helix.

9-12.B.1.2.a

Cytoplasmic Inheritance in Cells

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