Name: using maxwell's relations in thermodynamics
Uploaded: 2025-05-22T09:05:59.000Z
Duration: 1 min 23 s
Channel: JoVE

K12 Standards

Florida Department of Education

High School

Physical Science

SC.912.P.10

SC.912.P.10.2

Maxwell's Thermodynamic Relations

열역학적 전위의 미분 형태를 고려하십시오. Maxwell의 방정식은 열역학 전위에서 파생될 수 있습니다.
내부 에너지는 엔트로피와 부피의 함수입니다. 정확한 미분이기 때문에 부피와 엔트로피에 대한 2차 도함수는 미분 순서에 의존하지 않습니다.
온도와 압력의 표현을 대체하면 첫 번째 맥스웰 관계가 제공됩니다.
엔탈피는 엔트로피와 압력에 따라 달라집니다. 2차 도함수를 취하고 온도와 부피에 대한 표현식을 대체하면 두 번째 Maxwell의 관계가 제공됩니다.
헬름홀츠의 자유 에너지는 부피와 온도에 따라 달라진다. 이를 2차 도함수로 표현하고 압력과 엔트로피의 표현을 대체하면 3차 맥스웰 관계가 제공됩니다.
Gibbs 자유 에너지는 압력과 온도의 함수입니다. 그것을 두 번 미분하고 부피와 엔트로피의 관계를 대체하면 네 번째 맥스웰 관계가 제공됩니다.
Maxwell의 방정식은 실험적으로 측정하기 어려운 수량 간의 편미분을 쉽게 측정할 수 있는 양 간의 편차분과 관련시키기 때문에 복잡한 열역학 문제를 해결하는 데 사용됩니다.

<ol>
	<li>Blundell, SJ 및 Blundell, KM (2010). 열 물리학의 개념. 제2판. 뉴욕, 미국 : Oxford University Press. 179 쪽.</li>
	<li>헬리치, CS (2009). 통계 역학을 사용한 현대 열역학. 제2판. 베를린 : Springer. 69쪽.</li>
</ol>

맥스웰의 열역학적 관계

맥스웰의 열역학 관계식은 열역학 문제를 해결하는 데 매우 유용합니다. 맥스웰의 각 관계식은 실험적으로 측정하기 어려운 양 사이의 편미분과 쉽게 측정할 수 있는 양 사이의 편미분을 연관시킵니다. 이러한 관계는 2차 도함수와 열역학적 전위의 대칭성으로부터 파생될 수 있는 일련의 방정식입니다.

모든 열역학적 전위는 정확한 미분입니다. 따라서 2차 도함수는 미분 순서에 의존하지 않습니다. 맥스웰 관계식의 경우 열역학적 잠재력은 해당 함수의 편도함수로 표현됩니다. 편미분의 값을 대체하면 Maxwell의 방정식이 생성됩니다. 네 명의 맥스웰 관계는 다음과 같습니다:

<img alt="Equation1" src="/files/ftp_upload/14173/14173_Equation_1.png" style="text-align: center; height: 32px;" />

<img alt="Equation2" src="/files/ftp_upload/14173/14173_Equation_2.png" style="text-align: center; height: 35px;" />

<img alt="Equation3" src="/files/ftp_upload/14173/14173_Equation_3.png" style="text-align: center; height: 34px;" />

<img alt="Equation4" src="/files/ftp_upload/14173/14173_Equation_4.png" style="text-align: center; height: 35px;" />

이 방정식은 측정하기 어려운 엔트로피 변화를 온도, 부피, 압력과 같이 측정하기 쉬운 다른 열역학적 변수의 변화와 연관시킵니다. 예를 들어, 마지막 방정식에서 왼쪽 항은 일정한 부피에서 온도에 따른 압력 변화를 나타냅니다. 이 양은 실험실에서 쉽게 측정할 수 있습니다. 그러나 방정식의 우변에 있는 항은 일정한 온도에서 부피에 따른 엔트로피 변화를 측정하기 어렵기 때문에 더 복잡합니다.

Maxwell의 열역학 관계는 열역학의 문제를 해결하는 데 매우 유용합니다. Maxwell의 각 관계는 부분적으로 ...

Education

교육

JoVE Core

Physics

물리학

Unit 1

제1단원

The First Law of Thermodynamics

열역학 제1법칙

KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS

주요 용어 및 개념

using maxwell's relations in thermodynamics

Maxwell's thermodynamic relations help solve problems in thermodynamics. They connect partial differentials for quantities that are hard to measure in the lab with quantities that are easier to measure. This makes them useful for working with temperature, pressure, volume, and entropy.

These relations come from thermodynamic potentials and the symmetry of second derivatives. Thermodynamic potentials are exact differentials, so the order of second differentiation does not change the result. When the partial derivatives of these functions are substituted, Maxwell's equations are obtained.

There are four Maxwell's relations. Together, they link changes in entropy, which are difficult to measure, to changes in other thermodynamic variables that are easier to observe. For example, one relation gives the change in pressure with temperature at constant volume. That term can be measured in the laboratory. The matching entropy term with volume at constant temperature is harder to measure directly.

Using Maxwell's Relations in Thermodynamics

using-maxwells-relations-in-thermodynamics

thermodynamic systems

Open, Closed, and Isolated Systems

A thermodynamic system is the part of the world that scientists study for its heat and energy behavior. It sits inside a surrounding environment, or surroundings. The system and the surroundings can exchange heat and do work across the boundary that separates them. The immediate surroundings affect the system most strongly because they interact with it directly. A kettle of boiling tea shows how this works in everyday life. The tea and the kettle together form the system. If the lid is open,...

work done during volume change

Gas Work in a Piston Cylinder

Gas work in a piston cylinder describes how pressure and volume change are related in thermodynamics. In mechanics, work happens when a force moves an object. In thermodynamics, work done on a system can be estimated when the system changes volume during a process. A gas can be trapped in a cylinder with a movable piston at one end. When the gas expands from volume V1 to volume V2, it pushes on the piston and moves it by a small distance dr. If the pressure on the piston face is p and the...

path between thermodynamics states

Path Dependence in Gas Work

Work done by an ideal gas can depend on the path it takes between two thermodynamic states. The transcript compares two routes from state A to state C for the same gas. In both cases, the gas expands from volume V1 to volume V2, but the work is not the same. Along path AC, the gas stays at constant temperature T. It expands from V1 to V2. The work done by the gas is found from the pressure-volume relation for an ideal gas. After substituting pressure as nRT/V and integrating, the work for this...

heat and free expansion

Two Gas Paths to the Same Volume

Heat added to a thermodynamic system can lead to the same final state through different paths. The path matters because work and heat depend not only on the initial and final states, but also on the steps in between. In this topic, an ideal gas is used to show two different ways to reach the same volume. In the first case, the gas is in a cylinder with a piston and is heated at a constant temperature. As the gas molecules absorb energy, the gas expands slowly in a controlled isothermal process.

internal energy

How Internal Energy Changes in Gas Systems

Internal energy is the energy stored inside a thermodynamic system. It is the sum of the kinetic and potential energies of the molecules or other particles in the system. Molecular kinetic energy includes translational motion, rotation, and vibration. Molecular potential energy comes from interactions between molecules. A system’s location and overall motion do not affect its internal energy. For an ideal monatomic gas, each particle is a single atom. That means there is no rotational or...

first law of thermodynamics

Heat, Work, and Internal Energy

Heat, work, and internal energy are linked by the first law of thermodynamics. This law is a generalized form of energy conservation. It explains how energy changes when heat is added to or removed from a system, and when the system does work or has work done on it. The change in internal energy equals the heat transferred into the system minus the work done by the system. Added heat increases internal energy. For that reason, heat is taken as positive when it enters the system and negative...

first law of thermodynamics: problem-solving

first-law-of-thermodynamics-problem-solving

First Law of Thermodynamics: Solving Problems

The first law of thermodynamics links internal energy, heat, and work. It states that the change in internal energy of a system equals the net heat transfer into the system minus the net work done by the system. This is a general form of energy conservation, and it can be used for any thermodynamic process. To solve a first-law problem, start by identifying the thermodynamic system. Then list the initial and final states of the process. Next, identify the known and unknown quantities. It is...

cyclic processes and isolated systems

Net Work in a Cyclic Thermodynamic Process

A cyclic thermodynamic process returns a system to its initial state. In a cycle, the change in internal energy is zero. An isolated system is different because it has zero heat exchange and zero work, so its internal energy stays constant. For a non-isolated system, the internal energy change is zero only when the process is cyclic. The first law of thermodynamics relates internal energy, heat transfer, and work. It states that the change in internal energy is the difference between the net...

isothermal processes

Isothermal Expansion and Heat Transfer

An isothermal process is a thermodynamic process that happens at constant temperature. During the process, heat slowly flows into the system or out of the system so thermal equilibrium is maintained. Phase changes are common examples of isothermal processes. Water can evaporate into steam at a constant temperature, and water can also freeze into ice at a constant temperature. An ideal gas can also undergo isothermal expansion or compression. Here, an ideal gas in an isolated cylinder expands...

isochoric and isobaric processes

Constant Volume and Pressure in Thermodynamics

Thermodynamic processes can happen at constant volume or at constant pressure. An isochoric process is a constant-volume process. In this case, the volume does not change, so the work done by the system is zero. The first law of thermodynamics still applies, so any heat added or removed changes the internal energy of the system only. A simple example is heating 1000 g of water from 40 degrees celsius to 70 degrees celsius at constant volume. Because the process is isochoric, no work is done by...

heat capacities of an ideal gas i

Ideal Gas Heat Capacity at Constant Pressure

Heat capacity describes how much heat a substance absorbs for a given change in temperature. It is also called thermal capacity, and its SI unit is J/K. Specific heat capacity is the heat needed to raise the temperature of 1 kg of a substance by 1 K, and its SI unit is J/kg·K. The video also explains molar heat capacity. This is the amount of heat added or removed to change the temperature of 1 mole of a substance by 1 K. It can be measured at constant volume or constant pressure, and it is...

heat capacities of an ideal gas ii

Ideal Gas Heat Capacity Differences

Ideal gas heat capacities depend on whether the gas is heated at constant volume or constant pressure. At constant volume, the heat absorbed only raises the internal energy of the system. No work is done in this case. At constant pressure, the situation is different. The heat absorbed increases the internal energy and also does work. Molar heat capacity is the heat needed to raise the temperature of 1 mole of gas by 1 unit. Because some of the added heat goes into work, more heat is needed at...

heat capacities of an ideal gas iii

Ideal Gas Heat Capacity and Degrees of Freedom

Ideal gas heat capacity depends on degrees of freedom, which are the independent ways a gas molecule can move, rotate, and vibrate. If d is the number of degrees of freedom, the molar heat capacity at constant volume can be written in terms of d. The molar heat capacity at constant pressure can also be written using the relationship between the two heat capacities. The ratio of molar heat capacity at constant pressure to molar heat capacity at constant volume is called the ratio of heat...

adiabatic processes for an ideal gas

Gas Temperature Changes in Adiabatic Processes

Adiabatic processes change the temperature of an ideal gas without heat transfer. In an adiabatic compression, no heat is added, but work is done on the gas. That work raises the gas temperature. In an adiabatic expansion, the gas does work and its temperature drops. A common example is the compression of a gas-air mixture inside a car engine cylinder. The compression happens so quickly that there is no time for heat to move between the mixture and its surroundings. Even so, the work done on...

pressure and volume in an adiabatic process

pressure-and-volume-in-an-adiabatic-process

Free Expansion: Pressure, Volume, and Temperature

Free expansion shows how pressure, volume, and temperature behave when a gas expands without doing work. It is an adiabatic process, but it is not the same as adiabatic expansion. In free expansion, no work is done and the internal energy does not change. In adiabatic expansion, work is done and the internal energy changes. For an adiabatic process, the pressure-volume relation comes from the adiabatic condition. That relation does not apply to free expansion, even though the expansion is...

work done in an adiabatic process

Adiabatic Compression in an Engine Cylinder

Adiabatic compression in an engine cylinder changes the pressure, temperature, and volume of a gas-air mixture. In this setup, gasoline vapor is injected into the cylinder when the piston is in its expanded position. The mixture starts at 20 °C, 1.00 x 10^5 N/m^2, and 240 cm^3. The mixture is then compressed adiabatically to 40 cm^3. Adiabatic means no heat is exchanged with the surroundings during the process. For this calculation, the compression is treated as quasi-static, even though real...

thermodynamic potentials

Energy Forms in Thermodynamics

Thermodynamic potentials are energy-based state functions used to analyze a thermodynamic system. They help describe how a system changes under different conditions. The four main thermodynamic potentials are internal energy, enthalpy, Helmholtz free energy, and Gibbs free energy. These potentials can be written using two of the variables pressure, volume, temperature, and entropy. In each case, the rate of change of the potential with respect to the other two variables gives useful...

maxwell's thermodynamic relations

Maxwell's thermodynamic relations help solve problems in thermodynamics. They connect partial differentials for quantities that are hard to measure in the lab with quantities that are easier to measure. This makes them useful for working with temperature, pressure, volume, and entropy. These relations come from thermodynamic potentials and the symmetry of second derivatives. Thermodynamic potentials are exact differentials, so the order of second differentiation does not change the result.

joule-thomson effect

Gas Cooling and Heating in Throttling

Gas cooling and heating in throttling is explained by the Joule-Thomson effect, also called the Joule-Kelvin effect. It describes how a fluid changes temperature when it passes through a valve or porous plug in a thermally insulated system. This type of flow is called a throttling process. In the experiment, a high-pressure gas is forced through a throttle valve or porous plug into a lower-pressure region. The gas expands as it moves into the larger volume. Work is done on the gas as it is...

key terms and concepts

Learn how Maxwell's thermodynamic relations connect hard-to-measure entropy changes with measurable temperature, pressure, and volume relationships.

Using Maxwell's Relations in Thermodynamics | JoVE K12

physics

JoVE Core Physics introduces the theory and application of fundamental physics topics, including kinematics, dynamics, fluid mechanics, statics, waves, and acoustics, with concise and easy-to-understand animated videos. Additionally, the scientist-in-action videos demonstrate the application of related concepts in classical and original research experiments performed in today's laboratories worldwide.

Energy Basics

Chemical reactions, such as those that occur when you light a match, involve changes in energy as well as matter.

Chemical changes and their accompanying ...

First Law of Thermodynamics

Energy Conservation

Energy can be converted from one form into another, but all of the energy present before a change occurs always exists in some form ...

Internal Energy

The total of all possible kinds of energy present in a substance is called the internal energy (U), sometimes symbolized as E. Suppose a system with ...

Energy

The universe is composed of matter in different forms, and all forms of matter contain energy.&#160; The different forms of energy on Earth originate from ...

Types of Potential Energy

Potential energy is also known as energy at rest or stored energy. Common types of potential energy include the gravitational potential energy stored in ...

Types of Kinetic Energy

The amount of kinetic energy of an object depends on its mass and speed. Consider two balls of different masses rolling down an inclined plane at the same ...

Kinetic Energy - I

It&#8217;s plausible to suppose that the greater the velocity of a body, the greater effect it could have on other bodies. This does not depend on the ...

Kinetic Energy - II

The kinetic energy of a particle is one-half of the product of the particle&#8217;s mass and the square of its speed. Note that just as Newton&#8217;s ...

Work-energy Theorem

According to Newton&#x2019;s second law of motion, the sum of all the forces acting on a particle (net force) determines the rate of change in the ...

Work and Energy for Variable Forces

When an object is acted upon by a variable force, the amount of work done and the change in energy of the object can be more complex to calculate compared ...

/files/media/science-education/science-education-thumbs/14699.jpg

work-energy-theorem-for-motion-along-a-curve

Work-Energy Theorem for Motion Along a Curve

The work-energy theorem can be generalized to the motion of a particle along any curved path. The simple argument here is that the curved path can be ...

/files/media/science-education/science-education-thumbs/14700.jpg

Conservation of Energy

The terms &#39;conserved quantity&#39;&#160;and &#39;conservation law&#39;&#160;have specific scientific meanings in physics, which differ from the ...

Conservation of Energy: Application

When solving problems using the energy conservation law, the object (system) to be studied should first be identified. Often, in applications of energy ...

Differentiate among the various forms of energy and recognize that they can be transformed from one form to others.

SC.912.P.10.1

Thermodynamic Systems

A thermodynamic system is a set of objects whose thermodynamic properties are of interest. The system is considered to be embedded in its surroundings or ...

Work Done During Volume Change

In mechanics, work is done on an object when the force acting on it displaces the object. In thermodynamics, work done on a system can be estimated when ...

Path Between Thermodynamics States

Consider the two thermodynamic processes involving an ideal gas that are represented by paths AC and ABC in Figure 1:

In the first process for path A to ...

Heat and Free Expansion

The work done by a thermodynamic system depends not only on the initial and final states but also on the intermediate states&#8212;that is, on the path. ...

The internal energy of a thermodynamic system is the sum of the kinetic and potential energies of all the molecules or entities in the system. The kinetic ...

A change in the internal energy of a system depends on the the net heat transfer into the system and the net work done by the system. The first law of ...

First Law Of Thermodynamics: Problem-Solving

The first law of thermodynamics states that the change in internal energy of the system is equal to the net heat transfer into the system minus the net ...

Cyclic Processes And Isolated Systems

A thermodynamic system with zero heat exchange and work is an isolated system. For these systems, the internal energy remains constant.
In the case of a ...

Isothermal Processes

A thermodynamic process that occurs at constant temperature is called an isothermal process. Heat slowly flows into the system or out of the system to ...

Isochoric and Isobaric Processes

A thermodynamic process that occurs at constant volume is called an isochoric process. According to the first law of thermodynamics, heat supplied or ...

Work Done in an Adiabatic Process

Consider the adiabatic compression of an ideal gas in the cylinder of an automobile diesel engine. The gasoline vapor is injected into the cylinder of an ...

Thermodynamic Potentials

Thermodynamic potentials are state functions that are extremely useful in analyzing a thermodynamic system. They have dimensions of energy. The four ...

Maxwell&#39;s thermodynamic relations are very useful in solving problems in thermodynamics. Each of Maxwell&#39;s relations relates a partial ...

Joule-Thomson Effect

The Joule-Thomson effect, also known as the Joule-Kelvin effect, describes the temperature change of a fluid when it is forced through a valve or porous ...

Explore the Law of Conservation of Energy by differentiating among open, closed, and isolated systems and explain that the total energy in an isolated system is a conserved quantity.

Energy and Work

Source: Ketron Mitchell-Wynne, PhD,&#160;Asantha Cooray, PhD, Department of Physics &#38; Astronomy, School of Physical Sciences, University of ...

Enthalpy

Entropy

Power

The concept of work involves force and displacement; meanwhile, the work-energy theorem relates the net work done on a body to the difference in its ...

Power Expended by a Constant Force

The relationship between work done and the time taken to do it can be explained using the concept of power. For example, several sprinters in a race may ...

Compare and contrast work and power qualitatively and quantitatively.

SC.912.P.10.3

Mechanisms of Heat Transfer I

Just as interesting as the effects of heat transfer on a system are the methods by which the heat transfer occur. Whenever there is a temperature ...

Mechanisms of Heat Transfer II

In convection, thermal energy is carried by the large-scale flow of matter. Ocean currents and large-scale atmospheric circulation, which result from the ...

conduction-convection-and-radiation-problem-solving

Conduction, Convection and Radiation: Problem Solving

There are three methods by which heat transfer can take place: conduction, convection, and radiation. Each method has unique and interesting ...

Radiation: Applications

The average temperature of Earth is the subject of much current discussion. Earth is in radiative contact with both the Sun and dark space; it receives ...

Absorption of Radiation

The rate of heat transfer by emitted radiation is described by the Stefan-Boltzmann law of radiation:

where &#963; is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant, a ...

Describe heat as the energy transferred by convection, conduction, and radiation, and explain the connection of heat to change in temperature or states of matter.

SC.912.P.10.4

Kinetic Theory of an Ideal Gas

A mole is defined as the amount of any substance that contains as many molecules as there are atoms in exactly 12 grams of carbon-12. An Italian scientist ...

Molecular Kinetic Energy

The word &#34;gas&#34;&#160;comes from the Flemish word meaning &#34;chaos,&#34; first used to describe vapors by the chemist J. B. van Helmont. Consider ...

basic-postulates-kinetic-molecular-theory-particle-size-energy

Basic Postulates of Kinetic Molecular Theory: Particle Size, Energy, and Collision

The ideal-gas equation, which is empirical, describes the behavior of gases by establishing relationships between their macroscopic properties. For ...

kinetic-molecular-theory-gas-laws-explain-properties-gas

Kinetic Molecular Theory and Gas Laws Explain Properties of Gas Molecules

The test of the kinetic molecular theory (KMT) and its postulates is its ability to explain and describe the behavior of a gas. The various gas laws ...

kinetic-molecular-theory-molecular-velocities-temperature-kinetic

Kinetic Molecular Theory: Molecular Velocities, Temperature, and Kinetic Energy

The kinetic molecular theory qualitatively explains the behaviors described by the various gas laws. The postulates of this theory may be applied in a ...

behavior-gas-molecules-molecular-diffusion-mean-free-path

Behavior of Gas Molecules: Molecular Diffusion, Mean Free Path, and Effusion

Although gaseous molecules travel at tremendous speeds (hundreds of meters per second), they collide with other gaseous molecules and travel in many ...

Relate temperature to the average molecular kinetic energy.

SC.912.P.10.5

Chemical Reactions

A balanced chemical equation provides the information of chemical formulas of the reactants and products involved in the chemical change. A ...

Dynamics of Circular Motion

An object undergoing circular motion, like a race car, is accelerating because it is changing the direction of its velocity. This centrally directed ...

Dynamics Of Circular Motion: Applications

Suppose a car moves on flat ground and turns to the left. The centripetal force causing the car to turn in a circular path is due to friction between the ...

Potential Energy due to Gravitation

Since gravitational force is a conservative force, the amount of work done to move an object between two points in the gravitational field in which it ...

the-principle-of-superposition-and-the-gravitational-field

The Principle of Superposition and the Gravitational Field

The principle of superposition applies to gravitational forces of objects that are sufficiently far apart. It states that the net gravitational force on a ...

/files/media/science-education/science-education-thumbs/14754.jpg

Escape Velocity

The escape velocity of an object is defined as the minimum initial velocity that it requires to escape the surface of another object to which it is ...

Create and interpret potential energy diagrams, for example: chemical reactions, orbits around a central body, motion of a pendulum.

SC.912.P.10.6

A. Energy is involved in all physical and chemical processes. It is conserved, and can be transformed from one form to another and into work. At the atomic and nuclear levels energy is not continuous but exists in discrete amounts. Energy and mass are related through Einstein's equation E=mc2.

B. The properties of atomic nuclei are responsible for energy-related phenomena such as radioactivity, fission and fusion.

C. Changes in entropy and energy that accompany chemical reactions influence reaction paths. Chemical reactions result in the release or absorption of energy.

D. The theory of electromagnetism explains that electricity and magnetism are closely related. Electric charges are the source of electric fields. Moving charges generate magnetic fields.

E. Waves are the propagation of a disturbance. They transport energy and momentum but do not transport matter.

Using Maxwell's Relations in Thermodynamics

Description

Transcript

More videos by Standards