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Sensory receptors are specialized cells that detect specific stimuli, such as photoreceptors detecting light or hair cells responding to sound waves. When a stimulus is present, it triggers electrochemical changes in the receptor cell, altering the membrane potential and transducing the stimulus into a neural signal that the nervous system can interpret and process.

The major sensory systems include vision, hearing, smell, taste, and touch, along with temperature and pain sensation. Additionally, the vestibular system provides feedback about body position and balance. Some sensory systems detect external stimuli like light and sound, while others, such as proprioceptors in muscles and tendons, detect internal stimuli about limb position and movement.

Sensory signals are transmitted from sensory organs through neurons to the spinal cord and then to the brain, or directly to the brain as in the visual system. Most sensory information is routed to the thalamus, a central brain structure, which then sends signals to specific regions of the cerebral cortex dedicated to processing particular stimulus types, enabling conscious perception.

The cerebral cortex contains primary sensory areas that process specific modalities, such as visual or auditory information. These primary areas send information to the association cortex, where sensory data integrates with other information for higher-level analysis. This neural processing throughout sensory pathways ultimately allows for accurate perception and understanding of sensory stimuli.

Different types of sensory information, called modalities, travel in distinct pathways through the central nervous system. For example, somatosensory information from the skin travels through the spinal cord, while visual signals may travel directly to the brain. Despite these varied routes, most sensory modalities converge at the thalamus before being distributed to their respective cortical processing areas.

When an appropriate stimulus is present, it triggers electrochemical changes in sensory receptor cells, typically altering the membrane potential of a sensory neuron. This change in membrane potential can trigger an action potential, which generates the neural signal that travels through the nervous system to the brain for processing and perception.

External sensory systems detect stimuli like light and sound waves from the environment. Internal sensory systems, such as proprioceptors in muscles and tendons, detect body position and movement. Together, these systems provide comprehensive feedback about both the external world and the body's internal state, supporting coordinated movement and environmental interaction.