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Temperature describes a property of thermal energy and is measured in Celsius or Kelvin, making it substance-independent. Heat, measured in Joules, is the transfer of thermal energy between two bodies at different temperatures and depends on the number and type of molecules in a system. While temperature tells you how hot something is, heat quantifies the energy flowing between objects.

Heat capacity is an extensive property that depends on both the type and mass of a substance, so larger objects have greater heat capacity. Specific heat capacity is an intensive property describing the heat needed to raise 1 gram of a substance by 1°C, independent of mass. For example, a large iron pan requires more total energy to heat than a small iron pan, but both have the same specific heat capacity for iron.

Heat flows spontaneously from the hotter object to the cooler object until they reach thermal equilibrium, where no net heat transfer occurs. In an isolated system, the heat lost by the hot object equals the heat gained by the cold object. For example, when hot iron is placed in room-temperature water, thermal energy transfers from iron to water until both reach the same final temperature.

Heat is calculated using the equation q = m × c × ΔT, where m is mass in grams, c is specific heat capacity in J/g°C, and ΔT is the temperature change. If a substance gains thermal energy, q is positive; if it loses thermal energy, q is negative. This relationship allows you to determine any of these quantities if the other three are known.

Water has a relatively high specific heat capacity of about 4.2 J/g°C, while most metals like iron have much lower specific heats, usually less than 1 J/g°C. This means water needs to absorb significantly more heat energy to raise its temperature by one degree compared to iron. The difference reflects how molecular structure affects thermal energy absorption.

Calorimetry measures heat using the relationship between heat transfer and temperature change in a system. When a substance at one temperature is placed in contact with a substance at a different temperature, the heat absorbed or released can be calculated from the resulting temperature change and the substance's specific heat capacity. This technique allows quantification of thermal energy transfer in isolated systems.

Thermal equilibrium occurs when two objects in contact reach the same temperature and no net heat flows between them. At this point, the thermal energy of both objects remains constant. In an isolated system, thermal equilibrium is achieved when the heat lost by the hotter object exactly equals the heat gained by the cooler object.