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In animal cells, the cell division plane is determined during anaphase and is located at the cell equator between segregated chromosomes. Microtubules forming the mitotic spindle interact with the cell cortex to specify the cleavage furrow location. Three models explain this process: astral stimulation, polar relaxation, and central spindle stimulation, which work together to ensure accurate plane positioning.

In the astral stimulation model, radial arrays of astral microtubules interact with the equatorial cortex and directly induce cleavage furrow formation. This mechanism is particularly prominent in large cells like C. elegans embryos, where extensive astral microtubule arrays play an active role in determining the cell division plane accurately.

Once anaphase begins, interpolar microtubules between segregated chromosomes rearrange into overlapping antiparallel microtubules called the central spindle. In the central spindle stimulation model, this structure stimulates cleavage furrow formation at the equatorial cortex, contributing to accurate positioning of the cell division plane.

Plant cells decide their division plane before committing to mitosis by forming a preprophase band along the parent cell equator. This ring-like structure composed of microtubules and F-actin marks the division plane and gives rise to the phragmoplast, which provides structural scaffolding for cell plate expansion and positioning.

Symmetric cell division produces two identical daughter cells, often used to grow tissues with many of the same cell type. Asymmetric division generates two non-identical daughter cells, creating cellular diversity. For example, neuroepithelial cells use symmetric division to increase numbers, then switch to asymmetric division to produce both parent-like cells and differentiating neurons.

In budding yeast like Saccharomyces cerevisiae, septin proteins decide the cell division plane during the G1 phase. Unlike animal cells, the mitotic apparatus plays no role in determining the division plane. Instead, cytokinesis occurs by forming a cleavage furrow at the neck region of budding yeast cells.

Using three coordinated mechanisms—astral stimulation, polar relaxation, and central spindle stimulation—allows the cell division system to respond to fluctuations in protein concentration, cell size, and other variables. This multi-pronged approach increases the accuracy and reliability of cell division across different cell types and developmental contexts.