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A potential difference (ΔΦ) arises when charged species move between phases at equilibrium. For example, when zinc metal is immersed in dilute zinc sulfate solution, Zn²⁺ ions dissolve while electrons remain in the metal, creating net charges on each phase. This charge separation generates the potential difference without net chemical transfer occurring.

The Faraday constant (F = 96,485 C/mol) represents the charge per mole of electrons and enables calculation of total charge transferred. For a species i with charge number zi and ni moles, the charge is Qi = ziFni. This relationship allows quantification of charge movement during electrochemical processes at the metal-solution interface.

The potential difference depends on temperature, pressure, the nature of the metal, the solvent type, and ion concentrations in solution. These variables influence how readily ions dissolve or electrons transfer between phases. Understanding these dependencies is essential for predicting electrochemical behavior across different conditions.

Electrons move freely between metals like copper and zinc, creating net charges at equilibrium even though solid ions don't diffuse significantly. This electron movement between different metals generates potential differences and is the basis for thermocouples, which measure temperature through junction potentials in galvanic cells.

Exchange current represents the charge carried by ions crossing a metal-solution interface per unit area per unit time. For zinc in zinc sulfate solution, this charge is 2 × 10⁻⁵ C per cm² per second. Using the elementary charge and Avogadro constant, this exchange current quantifies the dynamic equilibrium rate at the interface.

Potential differences can emerge from water molecule orientation, electron distribution, and ion distribution within the interphase region, even without charge transfer. In immiscible liquid systems, these structural factors alone generate ΔΦ. Statistical-mechanical models can calculate such potentials by analyzing the electrical double layer and dipole distributions.

Measurement of ΔΦ is viable only between phases in equilibrium, where no net chemical transfer occurs. Direct measurement between phases in contact is challenging because new interfaces form. However, statistical-mechanical models offer an alternative approach to calculate ΔΦ from known charge and dipole distributions.