모종 홍수 분석은 슈도모나스 주사기 박테리아에 대한 저항성을 위한 야생 토마토 접근물의 신속한 스크리닝을 용이하게 한다. 이 분석법은, 모종 세균 성장 분석과 함께, 박테리아에 대한 근본적인 저항성을 더욱 특성화하는 데 도움을 줄 수 있으며, 저항의 유전적 기초를 결정하기 위해 매핑 인구를 스크리닝하는데 사용될 수 있다.
모종 홍수 분석은 슈도모나스 주사기 박테리아에 대한 저항성을 위한 야생 토마토 접근물의 신속한 스크리닝을 용이하게 한다. 이 분석법은, 모종 세균 성장 분석과 함께, 박테리아에 대한 근본적인 저항성을 더욱 특성화하는 데 도움을 줄 수 있으며, 저항의 유전적 기초를 결정하기 위해 매핑 인구를 스크리닝하는데 사용될 수 있다.
토마토는 그람 음성 박테리아인 슈도모나스 주사기에감염되어 세균성 반점 질환을 초래할 수 있는 농업학적으로 중요한 작물입니다. 토마토-P. 주사기 pv. 토마토 병리 시스템은 널리 식물 타고난 반응과 질병 저항의 유전 기초를 해부하는 데 사용됩니다. 질병은 성공적으로 재배 토마토에 Solanum pimpinellium에서 Pto/Prf 유전자 클러스터의 도입을 통해 수십 년 동안 관리되었지만, P. 주사기의 경주 1 균주는 Pto/Prf 유전자 클러스터에 의해 수여된 저항을 극복하기 위하여 발전하고 전 세계적으로 발생합니다.
야생 토마토 종은 병원체 인식에서 자연 다양성의 중요한 저수지입니다, 그들은 다른 병원균 압력을 가진 다양한 환경에서 진화하기 때문에. 야생 토마토의 질병 저항에 대한 일반적인 화면에서 성인 식물이 사용되며, 이는 성장 시간이 길어지고 성장 공간 요구 사항이 커지므로 선별 할 수있는 식물의 수를 제한 할 수 있습니다. 우리는 식물의 성장 시간과 성장 챔버 공간을 최소화하고 식물의 빠른 회전율을 허용하며 큰 샘플 크기를 테스트 할 수있는 저항을위해 10 일 된 토마토 묘목을 선별하는 방법을 개발했습니다. 생존 또는 죽음의 묘목 결과는 홍수 후 살아남은 묘목의 새로운 성장양에 의해 정의된 이산 표현형 또는 저항 척도로 취급될 수 있습니다. 이 방법은 두 개의 P. 주사기 균주에 대한 저항성을 위해 10 일 된 토마토 묘목을 스크리크로 최적화되었으며 다른 P. 주사기 균주에 쉽게 적응 할 수 있습니다.
슈도모나스 주사기는 광범위한 식물 숙주를 감염시키는 그람 음성 병원성 박테리아입니다. 세균은 구내 또는 물리적 상처를 통해 숙주 식물에 진입하여 apoplast1에서증식합니다. 식물은 세균성 병원체에 의한 감염으로부터 보호하기 위해 2계층 면역 반응을 진화시켰습니다. 첫번째 수준은 식물 세포 막에 패턴 인식 수용체가 PAMP 트리거된 면역 (PTI)에게 불린 프로세스에 있는 높게 보존된 병원체 관련 분자 패턴 (PAMPs)를 인식하는 식물 세포 표면에서 생깁니다2. 이 과정에서 숙주 식물은 세포벽에 칼로오스 증착, 구내 종단 폐쇄, 반응성 산소 종의 생산 및 병인 관련 유전자의 유도를 포함한 방어 반응 경로를 upregulates.
박테리아는 식물 세포3에직접 이펙터라고 불리는 단백질을 전달하기 위해 III 형 분비 시스템을 이용하여 PTI를 극복 할 수 있습니다. 이펙터 단백질은 일반적으로 PTI의 성분을 표적으로 하고 병원체독성을 촉진합니다 4. 식물 면역의 두 번째 단계는 이펙터 단백질을 인식하면 식물 세포 내에서 발생합니다. 이러한 인식은 레지스탕스 유전자에 의존하며, 이는 뉴클레오티드 결합 부위류신-풍부한 수용체(NLRs)를 함유하고 있다. NlR은 이펙터를 직접 인식하거나 독성 대상 또는 미끼5에서자신의 활동을 인식 할 수 있습니다. 그(것)들은 감염의 사이트에 현지화한 세포 죽음의 한 형태인 과민반응 (HR)과 수시로 연관되는 이펙터 트리거된 면역 (ETI)에게 불린 프로세스에 있는 이차 면역 반응을트리거합니다 6. ETI와 관련된 유전자 에 대한 유전자 저항과는 대조적으로, 식물은 다중 유전자7의기여에 의존하는 양적 부분 저항성을 나타낼 수 있다.
P. 주사기 pv. 토마토 (Pst)는토마토에 세균 성 반점의 인과 에이전트이며 지속적인 농업 문제입니다. 필드에 우세한 균주는 일반적으로 중 하나 또는 유형 III 이펙터 AvrPto 및 AvrPtoB의 둘 다를 표현하는 Pst 경주 0 균주되었습니다. DC3000(PstDC3000)은 대표적인 경주 0 균주 및 토마토에 세균 성 반점을 일으킬 수있는 모델 병원체입니다. 세균성 반점 질환에 대처하기 위해, 육종가들은 Pto [P. 주사기 pv. 토마토]/Prf [Pto 저항성 및 펜티온 민감성]유전자 클러스터를 야생 토마토 종솔라눔 포피넬리폴리움에서 현대 품종으로8,9. Pto 유전자는 Prf NLR과 함께, 이펙터 AvrPto 및 AvrPtoB10,11,12,13,14의인식을 통해 PstDC3000에 저항성을 부여하는 세린-트레오닌 단백질 키나아제인을 인코딩한다. 그러나, 이 저항은 신흥 인종에 대한 효과가 1 균주, 최근 몇 년 동안 자신의 신속하고 공격적인 확산을 허용15,16. 레이스 1 균주는 AvrPto가 이러한 균주에서 분실되거나 돌연변이되기 때문에 Pto / Prf 클러스터에 의한 인식을 회피하고 AvrPtoB는 최소15,17,18을축적하는 것으로 보입니다.
야생 토마토 개체군은 Pst 저항에 대한 자연변화의 중요한 저수지이며, 이전에는 잠재적 저항성 로시19,20,21을식별하는 데 사용되어 왔다. 그러나, 병원체 저항에 대한 현재의 스크린은 4-5 주 령 성인 식물20,21를이용합니다. 따라서, 이들은 성장 시간, 성장 챔버 공간 및 상대적으로 작은 샘플 크기에 의해 제한된다. 종래의 접근법의 한계를 해결하기 위해 10일 된 토마토 묘목22를사용하여 고처리량 토마토 P. 주사기 저항 분석법을 개발했습니다. 이 접근 방식은 성인 용 식물을 사용하는 데 비해 몇 가지 이점을 제공합니다: 즉, 성장 시간 단축, 공간 요구 사항 감소 및 더 높은 처리량. 더욱이, 우리는 이 접근법이 성인 식물22에서관찰된 질병 저항 표현형을 충실하게 재현한다는 것을 입증했다.
본 프로토콜에 기재된 모종 홍수 분석에서, 토마토 모종은 10일 동안 멸균무라시게 및 스쿠그(MS) 매체의 페트리 접시상에서 재배된 후 관심 있는 박테리아및 계면활성제를 함유하는 접종제로 범람한다. 홍수 후, 모종은 세균 성장 분석을 통해 질병 저항성을 정량적으로 평가할 수 있습니다. 또한, 모종 생존 또는 사망은 홍수 후 7-14일 후에 이산 저항성 또는 질병 표현형으로 작용할 수 있다. 이 접근법은 Pst 균주T1(PstT1)과 같은 Pst 경주 1 균주에 대한 저항성을 위해 많은 수의 야생 토마토 수탁을 스크리닝하기 위한 높은 처리량 대안을 제공하며, 관심 있는 다른 세균 균주에 쉽게 적응할 수 있다.
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1. 생체 안전 성 캐비닛의 준비 및 사용
2. 식물 매체의 준비
3. 식물 재료 및 성장 조건의 준비

그림 1: 전형적인 10일 된 토마토 묘목의 발달 단계. 리오그란데-PtoR 토마토 종자를 멸균, 도금, 4°C에서 어둠 속에서 3일 이상 층화하였다. 모종은 침수되기 전에 22°C에서 10일 동안 0.5x MS 플레이트에서 재배하였다. 일반적으로 10 일 에서 코틸레온이 완전히 확장되고 첫 번째 진정한 잎이 나타나기 시작했습니다. 이 그림의 더 큰 버전을 보려면 여기를 클릭하십시오.
4. 킹스 B23 (KB) 미디어 준비
5. 세균성 균주 및 배양 조건의 유지 보수
6. PstT1 접종의 준비
7. PstDC3000 접종의 준비
8. 토마토 모종 홍수 방법
9. 세균 성장 분석에 대 한 cotyledons의 표면 살균
10. 세균 성장 분석

그림 2: 모종 세균 성장 아세포를 위한 직렬 희석제. (A)감염된 식물로부터 의한 잎 조직을 식민지 카운트 전에 희석한다. 희석은 96 웰 플레이트에서 수행된다 (100은 희석되지 않습니다). 전형적으로 희석은10-1 ~10-5로이루어진다. (B)세균 성 콜로니 카운트에 대한 도금 희석. 희석 계열의 각 컬럼의 총 5 μL은 가장 희석된 것부터 가장 농축된 것까지 도금된다. 콜로니가 완전히 건조된 후, 플레이트는 36-48 h. 콜로니를 10배 해부 현미경으로 계수하여 28°C에서 배양된다. 이 그림의 더 큰 버전을 보려면 여기를 클릭하십시오.
| 유전자형1 열 A | 조직 무게 (g) 열 B | 스팟 열 C에 있는 식민지의 # | 스팟2 열 D의 희석 계수 | 식민지 3 열 E의 조정 된 # | 직렬 희석 컬럼 F용 희석 계수 | 콜로니 컬럼 G의 총 # (cfu/0.01 g)4 | 평균 # 콜로니 (cfu/ 0.01 g) 열 H | 평균 로그 증가(cfu/0.01 g(로그10))열 I |
| 샘플 1 | 0.004 g | 10 | 200 | 계산: (C2 x 0.01 g) / B2 = 25 | 1000 | 다음과 같이 계산: (D2 x E2 x F2) = 5000000 | 샘플 1에서 마지막 샘플까지의 평균: (예: 평균 G1:G3) = 70000000 | 평균 즉, 로그. 로그(H2) = 6.85 |
| 샘플 2 | 0.003 g | 15 | 200 | 50 | 1000 | 10000000 | ||
| 샘플 3 | 0.002 g | 6 | 200 | 30 | 1000 | 6000000 | ||
| 1개 3개의 샘플에 대해 표시된 데이터 | ||||||||
| 2개 도금 5 μL x 200 : 1 mL 기준 | ||||||||
| 3개 코틸레돈은 코어에 너무 작기 때문에 식민지 수는 하나의MoneyMaker-PtoS cotyledon의 평균 질량에 따라 조직의 0.01 g로 정규화되었습니다 (데이터는 표시되지 않음) | ||||||||
| 4개 도금 된 볼륨에 따라 mL당 조정 | ||||||||
표 1: 모종 세균 성장 분석에 대한 샘플 계산. 샘플 계산은 세균 수를 정규화하고 로그 박테리아 성장을 결정하는 방법을 보여줍니다.
11. 저항을 위한 현상표

그림 3: 토마토 모종의 개략적 표현. 토마토 묘목의 다른 부분은 hypocotyl, 코일레온, 에피코틸, 정점 meristem 촬영, 진정한 잎을 포함하여 묘사된다. 이 그림의 더 큰 버전을 보려면 여기를 클릭하십시오.

그림 4: 다양한 유전적 배경에서 모종 저항성 및 사망에 대한 예상 표현형의 개략적 표현. (A)리오 그란데-PtoR 및 근이종 품종 리오 그란데-PtoS의 모종은 PstDC3000 (OD600 = 0.005) + 0.015% 계면 활성제로 홍수 후 7 일 후에 표시됩니다. 리오 그란데-PtoR은 일관된 저항을 표시하고, 리오 그란데-PtoS는 PstDC3000감염에 일관된 감수성을 표시합니다. 이러한 선은 이산 및 이진 표현형을 발생시다. (B) 솔라눔 네오릭키 LA1329와 같은 야생 수탁의 모종은 PstT1(OD600 = 0.0075) + 0.015% 계면활성제로 범람한 후 10일 후에 도시된다. 묘목은 표현형 가변성을 표시하지만 이진 표현형으로 기록되었다. 자형질가변성의 양과 자형질(이진 저항 또는 저항 스펙트럼)의 방법은 시험된 특정 수표에 의존할 것이다. (C)취약한 품종에 야생 접근을 교차하여 생성 된 매핑 인구는 F2 분리 인구에서 표현형의 넓은 스펙트럼을 표시 할 수 있습니다. 이 경우, 스펙트럼에 모종 표현형을 기록하는 것이 가장 적합 할 수있다. 매핑 인구에서 매우 취약 한 묘목 PstT1와 홍수 때 일찍 죽음에 대 한 표현 될 수 있습니다 7, 일반적으로 갈색 정점 meristem을 표시, 에피코틸의 거의 확장, 그리고 새로운, 녹색 식물 성장. 영향을 받기 쉬운 모종의 정점 meristem더 많은 시간 동안 녹색 또는 매우 밝은 갈색 을 유지 될 수 있습니다., 그리고 에피코틸과 아주 작은 식물 성장의 일부 확장 있을 수 있습니다., 하루에 의해 갈색과 체포 10. 개별 묘목은 14일까지 새롭고 지속적인 식물 성장의 양에 따라 저항을 표현할 수 있습니다. 모종은 약한, 중간, 또는 강한 저항과 같은 저항의 다른 종류로 위에 기술된 표현형에 근거하여 그 때 분류될 수 있습니다. 이 그림의 더 큰 버전을 보려면 여기를 클릭하십시오.
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묘목 저항 성 분석기를 사용하여 품종 및 등화 선에서 PtoR-매개 면역 검출
그림 5는 PstDC3000으로 홍수 후 머니메이커-PtoR 및 머니메이커-PtoS 품종 7-10일 의 대표적인 결과를 보여줍니다. 감염 되기 전에, 10 일 된 묘목 표시 완전히 등장 하 고 확장 된 자엽 과 신흥 첫 번째 진정한 잎. 모종은 0.005 + 0.015% 계면활성제의 광학 밀도에서 음의 대조군(데이터 미도시) 및 PstDC3000으로서 10 mM MgCl2 + 0.015% 계면활성제로 침수되었다. 모종은 홍수 후 7-10일 후에 표현형을하였다(도 5). Genono에서 개별 모종일반적으로 균일 한 라인, 머니 메이커-PtoR 및 머니 메이커-PtoS 는 모종 홍수 ...
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토마토 모종에서 이러한 세균 균주에 대한 저항성을 검출하도록 최적화된 PstDC3000 또는 PstT1을 사용하여 홍수 접종을 위한 프로토콜이 설명되어 있다. 세균 농도 및 계면활성제 농도를 포함하는 모종 저항성 분석에서 최적의 결과를 위한 몇 가지 중요한 파라미터가 있으며, 이는 경험적으로22로결정되었다. PstDC3000의 경우, 광학 밀도는 Pto/Prf 클러스터를 포함하는 내성 품종에서 완전한 생존을 달성하도록 최적화되었으며 Pto/Prf 클러스터(22)가결여된 취약한 품종에서 완전한 죽음을 달성하도록 최적화되었다. 알려진 내성 품종이 없는 PstT1과 같은 변형의 경우, 광학 밀도는 일관되고 완전한 식물사멸(22)에대해 가능한 가장 낮은 것으로 최적화되었다. Uppalapati 외
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저자는 공개 할 것이 없다.
우리는 질병 이나 저항 결과에 미디어 볼륨의 효과 테스트 에 대 한 제이미 Calma 감사 합니다. 루이스 연구소의 마엘 보딘 박사와 칼 J. 셰이버 박사에게 원고에 대한 건설적인 의견과 제안을 해주신 것에 감사드립니다. 루이스 실험실에서 식물 면역에 대한 연구는 USDA ARS 2030-21000-046-00D 및 2030-21000-050-00D (JDL) 및 생물 과학 IOS-1557661 (JDL)에 대한 NSF 이사회(JDL)에 의해 지원되었습니다.
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| 이름 | 회사 | 카탈로그 번호 | 댓글 |
|---|---|---|---|
| 3M 테이프 Micropore 1/2" x 10 YD CS 240 (1.25 cm x 9.1 m) | VWR International | 56222-182 | |
| 3mm 붕규산 유리 구슬 | Friedrich & Dimmock | GB3000B | |
| Bacto 펩톤 | BD | 211677 | |
| Bacto 한천 | BD | 214010 | |
| 생물 광도계 플러스 | Eppendorf | E952000006 | |
| Biosafety 캐비닛, 클래스 II 유형 A2 | |||
| 브랜드 일회용 플라스틱 큐벳, 폴리스티렌 | VWR International | 47744-642 | |
| 셔닐 실 Kraft 편평한 나무 이쑤시개 | VWR International | 500029-808 | |
| 시클로헥시미드 | Research Products International | C81040-5.0 | |
| 이염기성 인산칼륨 무수, ACS 등급 | Fisher Scientific | P288-500 | |
| 디메틸포름아미드 | |||
| 해부 현미경(최소 10배 확대) | |||
| 에탄올 - 190 Proof | |||
| Falcon 폴리스티렌 96 웰 마이크로 플레이트, 평평한 바닥 | Fisher Scientific | 08-772-3 | |
| 유리 알코올 버너 심지 | Fisher Scientific | S41898A / No. W-125 | |
| 유리 알코올 버너 | Fisher Scientific | S41898 / No. BO125 | |
| 글리세롤 ACS 시약 | VWR International | EMGX0185-5 | |
| Kimberly-Clark™ Kimtech 과학 및 무역; 킴와이프스&트레이드; 섬세한 작업 와이퍼 | Fisher Scientific | 06-666-A | |
| 염화마그네슘, ACS 등급 | VWR International | 97061-356 | |
| 황산 마그네슘 헵타하이드레이트, ACS 등급 | VWR International | 97062-130 | |
| 마이크로 원심분리기 튜브, 1.5mL | |||
| 마이크로 원심분리기 튜브, 2.2mL | |||
| Mini Beadbeater-96, 115 볼트 | 바이오 스펙 제품 Inc. | 1001 | |
| 무라시게 & Skoog, 기초 염 | Caisson Laboratories, Inc. | MSP01-50LT | |
| Pipet-Lite XLS LTS 8-CH Pipet 20-200uL | Rainin | L8-200XLS | |
| Pipet-Lite XLS LTS 8-CH Pipet 2-20uL | Rainin | L8-20XLS | |
| 폴리스티렌 100mm x 25mm 멸균 페트리 접시 | VWR International | 89107-632 | |
| 폴리스티렌 150mm x 15mm 멸균 페트리 접시 | Fisher Scientific | FB08-757-14 | |
| 폴리스티렌 150x15mm 멸균 페트리 접시 | Fisher Scientific | 08-757-148 | |
| Pure Bright Germicidal Ultra Bleach 5.7% Available Chlorine (100% bleach로 정의) | 스테이플 | 1013131 | |
| Rifampicin | Gold Biotechnology | R-120-25 | |
| Silwet L-77 (비이온 유기실리콘 계면활성제 공중합체 C13H34O4 Si3 계면활성제) | Fisher Scientific | NCO138454 | |
| 팁 LTS 20 μ L 960/10 GPS-L10 | Rainin | 17005091 | |
| 팁 LTS 250 μ L 960/10 GPS-L250 | Rainin | 17005093 | |
| VWR 해부 겸자 미세 팁, 4.5" | VWR International | 82027-386 |
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이 JoVE 논문의 텍스트 또는 그림 재사용 허가 요청
허가 요청An erratum was issued for: High-Throughput Identification of Resistance to Pseudomonas syringae pv. Tomato in Tomato using Seedling Flood Assay. The Introduction, Protocol, Representative Results and Discussion sections were updated.
The last paragraph of the Introduction section was updated from:
In the seedling flood assay described in this protocol, tomato seedlings are grown on Petri dishes of sterile Murashige and Skoog (MS) media for 10 days and then are flooded with an inoculum containing the bacteria of interest and a surfactant. Following flooding, seedlings can be quantitatively evaluated for disease resistance via bacterial growth assays. Additionally, seedling survival or death can act as a discrete resistance or disease phenotype 7–14 days after flooding. This approach offers a high-throughput alternative for screening large numbers of wild tomato accessions for resistance to Pst race 1 strains, such as Pst strain T1 (PstT1), and can easily be adapted to other bacterial strains of interest.
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In the seedling flood assay described in this protocol, tomato seedlings are grown on Petri dishes of sterile Murashige and Skoog (MS) media for 10 days and then are flooded with an inoculum containing the bacteria of interest and a surfactant. Following flooding, seedlings can be quantitatively evaluated for disease resistance via bacterial growth assays. Additionally, seedling survival or death can act as a discrete resistance or disease phenotype 7–14 days after flooding. This approach offers a high-throughput alternative for screening large numbers of wild tomato accessions for resistance to Pst race 1 strains, such as Pst strain 19 (Pst19), and can easily be adapted to other bacterial strains of interest.
Step 4.8 of the Protocol section was updated from:
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Step 5.2 of the Protocol section was updated from:
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Step 5.6 of the Protocol section was updated from:
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Step 6 of the Protocol section was updated from:
6. Preparation of PstT1 inoculum
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6. Preparation of Pst19 inoculum
Step 6.2 of the Protocol section was updated from:
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Step 6.3 of the Protocol section was updated from:
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Step 8.3 of the Protocol section was updated from:
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Step 8.11 of the Protocol section was updated from:
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Step 10.7 of the Protocol section was updated from:
| Genotype1 Column A | Tissue Weight (g) Column B | # of Colonies in a spot Column C | Dilution factor for spot2 Column D | Adjusted # of Colonies3 Column E | Dilution factor for serial dilution Column F | Total # of Colonies Column G (cfu/0.01 g)4 | Average # of Colonies (cfu/0.01 g) Column H | Average Log Growth (cfu/0.01 g (log10)) Column I |
| Sample 1 | 0.004 g | 10 | 200 | calculated as: (C2 x 0.01 g) / B2 = 25 | 1000 | calculated as: (D2 x E2 x F2) = 5000000 | average for sample 1 through last sample: (ie. average G1:G3) = 7000000 | log of average ie. log(H2) = 6.85 |
| Sample 2 | 0.003 g | 15 | 200 | 50 | 1000 | 10000000 | ||
| Sample 3 | 0.002 g | 6 | 200 | 30 | 1000 | 6000000 | ||
| 1Data shown for 3 samples | ||||||||
| 2Based on plating 5 µL x 200 for 1 mL | ||||||||
| 3Cotyledons are too small to core so colony counts were normalized to 0.01 g of tissue based on the average mass of one MoneyMaker-PtoS cotyledon (data not shown) | ||||||||
| 4Adjusted per mL based on volume plated | ||||||||
Table 1: Sample calculations for seedling bacterial growth assay. Sample calculations demonstrate how to normalize bacterial counts and determine log bacterial growth.
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| Genotype1 Column A | Tissue Weight (g) Column B | # of Colonies in a spot Column C | Dilution factor for spot2 Column D | Adjusted # of Colonies3 Column E | Dilution factor for serial dilution Column F | Total # of Colonies Column G (cfu/0.01 g)4 | Average # of Colonies (cfu/0.01 g) Column H | Average Log Growth (cfu/0.1 g (log10)) Column I |
| Sample 1 | 0.04 g | 10 | 200 | calculated as: (C2 x 0.1 g) / B2 = 25 | 1000 | calculated as: (D2 x E2 x F2) = 5000000 | average for sample 1 through last sample: (ie. average G1:G3) = 7000000 | log of average ie. log(H2) = 6.85 |
| Sample 2 | 0.03 g | 15 | 200 | 50 | 1000 | 10000000 | ||
| Sample 3 | 0.02 g | 6 | 200 | 30 | 1000 | 6000000 | ||
| 1Data shown for 3 samples | ||||||||
| 2Based on plating 5 µL x 200 for 1 mL | ||||||||
| 3Cotyledons are too small to core so colony counts were normalized to 0.1 g of tissue based on the average mass of one MoneyMaker-PtoS cotyledon (data not shown) | ||||||||
| 4Adjusted per mL based on volume plated | ||||||||
Table 1: Sample calculations for seedling bacterial growth assay. Sample calculations demonstrate how to normalize bacterial counts and determine log bacterial growth.
Step 11.3 of the Protocol section was updated from:
to:
Figure 4 in the Protocol section was updated from:

Figure 4: Schematic representation of expected phenotypes for seedling resistance and death in various genetic backgrounds. (A) Seedlings of Rio Grande-PtoR and the near-isogenic cultivar Rio Grande-PtoS are displayed 7 days after flooding with PstDC3000 (OD600 = 0.005) + 0.015% surfactant. Rio Grande-PtoR displays consistent resistance, and Rio Grande-PtoS displays consistent susceptibility to infection with PstDC3000. These lines give rise to discrete and binary phenotypes. (B) Seedlings of a wild accession, such as Solanum neorickii LA1329, are shown 10 days after flooding with PstT1 (OD600 = 0.0075) + 0.015% surfactant. Seedlings display phenotypic variability but were recorded as binary phenotypes. The amount of phenotypic variability and the method of phenotyping (binary resistance or resistance spectrum) will depend on the particular accession tested. (C) Mapping populations generated by outcrossing wild accessions to susceptible cultivars may display a wider spectrum of phenotypes in F2 segregating populations. In this case, it may be most appropriate to record seedling phenotypes on a spectrum. Highly susceptible seedlings from a mapping population may be phenotyped for death as early as day 7 when flooded with PstT1, and typically show a brown apical meristem, no to very little extension of the epicotyl, and no new, green vegetative growth. The apical meristem of susceptible seedlings may stay green or very light brown for more time, and there may be some extension of the epicotyl and very little vegetative growth, which turns brown and arrests by day 10. Individual seedlings can be phenotyped for resistance based on the amount of new and ongoing vegetative growth by day 14. Seedlings can then be grouped based on the phenotypes described above into different categories of resistance such as weak, medium, or strong resistance. Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.
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Figure 4: Schematic representation of expected phenotypes for seedling resistance and death in various genetic backgrounds. (A) Seedlings of Rio Grande-PtoR and the near-isogenic cultivar Rio Grande-PtoS are displayed 7 days after flooding with PstDC3000 (OD600 = 0.005) + 0.015% surfactant. Rio Grande-PtoR displays consistent resistance, and Rio Grande-PtoS displays consistent susceptibility to infection with PstDC3000. These lines give rise to discrete and binary phenotypes. (B) Seedlings of a wild accession, such as Solanum neorickii LA1329, are shown 10 days after flooding with Pst19 (OD600 = 0.0075) + 0.015% surfactant. Seedlings display phenotypic variability but were recorded as binary phenotypes. The amount of phenotypic variability and the method of phenotyping (binary resistance or resistance spectrum) will depend on the particular accession tested. (C) Mapping populations generated by outcrossing wild accessions to susceptible cultivars may display a wider spectrum of phenotypes in F2 segregating populations. In this case, it may be most appropriate to record seedling phenotypes on a spectrum. Highly susceptible seedlings from a mapping population may be phenotyped for death as early as day 7 when flooded with Pst19, and typically show a brown apical meristem, no to very little extension of the epicotyl, and no new, green vegetative growth. The apical meristem of susceptible seedlings may stay green or very light brown for more time, and there may be some extension of the epicotyl and very little vegetative growth, which turns brown and arrests by day 10. Individual seedlings can be phenotyped for resistance based on the amount of new and ongoing vegetative growth by day 14. Seedlings can then be grouped based on the phenotypes described above into different categories of resistance such as weak, medium, or strong resistance. Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.
The second paragraph of the Representative Results section was updated from:
Phenotypic screening of wild accessions using the seedling resistance assay
Figure 6 shows representative results for seedlings of susceptible and resistant accessions 10–14 days after flooding with PstT1. Susceptible accessions include RG-PtoR, S. pimpinellifolium LA1375, and S. pimpinellifolium LA1606, and resistant accessions include S. neorickii LA1329. Ten-day-old seedlings were flooded with 10 mM MgCl2 + 0.015% surfactant as a negative control, and PstT1 at an optical density of 0.0075 + 0.015% surfactant. The seedlings were phenotyped at least 10 days after flooding, as PstT1-infected seedlings died more slowly than PstDC3000-infected seedlings. Mock-inoculated seedlings were green, healthy, and actively growing. This control is important to ensure that the accessions are not sensitive to the concentration of surfactant, and to ensure there is no bacterial contamination. Susceptible accessions (Rio Grande-PtoR [n = 7], S. pimpinellifolium LA1375 [n = 7], and S. pimpinellifolium LA1606 [n = 5]) were dead, had brown apical meristems, and lacked new growth 10–14 days after inoculation with PstT1. In contrast, two S. neorickii LA1329 (n = 3) seedlings displayed a high level of new, green growth and survived infection with PstT1 (Figure 6). Three LA1329 seedlings did not germinate. Typically, 5–7 individuals were screened for each accession in a primary screen to determine the prevalence of resistance in the population. When a more genetically complex wild accession, such as LA1329, is flooded with PstT1, the resistance phenotypes display slightly more variability among individual seedlings, compared to Moneymaker-PtoR treated with PstDC3000. However, the resistance phenotypes were usually less variable than those seen in F2 mapping populations. Thus, binary phenotyping criteria was used for LA1329.
to:
Phenotypic screening of wild accessions using the seedling resistance assay
Figure 6 shows representative results for seedlings of susceptible and resistant accessions 10–14 days after flooding with Pst19. Susceptible accessions include RG-PtoR, S. pimpinellifolium LA1375, and S. pimpinellifolium LA1606, and resistant accessions include S. neorickii LA1329. Ten-day-old seedlings were flooded with 10 mM MgCl2 + 0.015% surfactant as a negative control, and Pst19 at an optical density of 0.0075 + 0.015% surfactant. The seedlings were phenotyped at least 10 days after flooding, as Pst19-infected seedlings died more slowly than PstDC3000-infected seedlings. Mock-inoculated seedlings were green, healthy, and actively growing. This control is important to ensure that the accessions are not sensitive to the concentration of surfactant, and to ensure there is no bacterial contamination. Susceptible accessions (Rio Grande-PtoR [n = 7], S. pimpinellifolium LA1375 [n = 7], and S. pimpinellifolium LA1606 [n = 5]) were dead, had brown apical meristems, and lacked new growth 10–14 days after inoculation with Pst19. In contrast, two S. neorickii LA1329 (n = 3) seedlings displayed a high level of new, green growth and survived infection with Pst19 (Figure 6). Three LA1329 seedlings did not germinate. Typically, 5–7 individuals were screened for each accession in a primary screen to determine the prevalence of resistance in the population. When a more genetically complex wild accession, such as LA1329, is flooded with Pst19, the resistance phenotypes display slightly more variability among individual seedlings, compared to Moneymaker-PtoR treated with PstDC3000. However, the resistance phenotypes were usually less variable than those seen in F2 mapping populations. Thus, binary phenotyping criteria was used for LA1329.
Figure 6 in the Representative Results section was updated from:

Figure 6: Phenotypic characterization of resistance or disease symptoms 10–14 days post-infection in wild accessions. Rio Grande-PtoR, S. pimpinellifolium LA1606, S. pimpinellifolium LA1375 and S. neorickii LA1329 tomato seedlings were grown on 0.5x MS plates for 10 days, and then flooded with PstT1 (OD600 = 0.0075) + 0.015% surfactant. The number of surviving seedlings for each wild accession out of the total number tested is shown. Scale bar = 1 cm. Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.
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Figure 6: Phenotypic characterization of resistance or disease symptoms 10–14 days post-infection in wild accessions. Rio Grande-PtoR, S. pimpinellifolium LA1606, S. pimpinellifolium LA1375 and S. neorickii LA1329 tomato seedlings were grown on 0.5x MS plates for 10 days, and then flooded with Pst19 (OD600 = 0.0075) + 0.015% surfactant. The number of surviving seedlings for each wild accession out of the total number tested is shown. Scale bar = 1 cm. Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.
The third paragraph of the Representative Results section was updated from:
Quantitative assessment of bacterial growth using the seedling flood assay
To confirm that the observed resistance in LA1329 to PstT1 resulted in lower bacterial growth, bacterial growth assays were carried out in tomato seedlings. The level of PstT1 growth in Moneymaker-PtoS and S. neorickii LA1329 was determined 4 days post-infection. Moneymaker-PtoS is a near-isogenic line with consistent susceptibility among individual seedlings. Wild accessions such as S. neorickii LA1329 are often more genetically complex. LA1329 displays approximately 60% resistance to PstT1 across the population22. Because seedlings may drop their cotyledons after infection, one seedling was grown on each plate to correlate bacterial growth in the harvested cotyledon with overall seedling survival or death as determined phenotypically at least 10 days after flooding. The bacterial counts on day 4 for each seedling were normalized to 0.01 g of tissue and converted to log growth (CFU/0.01 g(log10)). Log growth for phenotypically resistant LA1329 seedlings (LA1329RES) or phenotypically susceptible seedlings (LA1329SUS) were separately pooled and compared to each other and the susceptible cultivar Moneymaker-PtoS. For example, there was a 1.7 log difference in bacterial growth between LA1329RES (log 6.3) and LA1329SUS (log 8.0), and a 1.6 log difference between LA1329RES (log 6.3) and Moneymaker-PtoS (log 7.9) (Figure 7). Therefore, phenotypic resistance correlated with quantitative resistance in the seedling assays.
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Quantitative assessment of bacterial growth using the seedling flood assay
To confirm that the observed resistance in LA1329 to Pst19 resulted in lower bacterial growth, bacterial growth assays were carried out in tomato seedlings. The level of Pst19 growth in Moneymaker-PtoS and S. neorickii LA1329 was determined 4 days post-infection. Moneymaker-PtoS is a near-isogenic line with consistent susceptibility among individual seedlings. Wild accessions such as S. neorickii LA1329 are often more genetically complex. LA1329 displays approximately 60% resistance to Pst19 across the population22. Because seedlings may drop their cotyledons after infection, one seedling was grown on each plate to correlate bacterial growth in the harvested cotyledon with overall seedling survival or death as determined phenotypically at least 10 days after flooding. The bacterial counts on day 4 for each seedling were normalized to 0.01 g of tissue and converted to log growth (CFU/0.01 g(log10)). Log growth for phenotypically resistant LA1329 seedlings (LA1329RES) or phenotypically susceptible seedlings (LA1329SUS) were separately pooled and compared to each other and the susceptible cultivar Moneymaker-PtoS. For example, there was a 1.7 log difference in bacterial growth between LA1329RES (log 6.3) and LA1329SUS (log 8.0), and a 1.6 log difference between LA1329RES (log 6.3) and Moneymaker-PtoS (log 7.9) (Figure 7). Therefore, phenotypic resistance correlated with quantitative resistance in the seedling assays.
Figure 7 in the Representative Results section was updated from:
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Figure 7: Resistant Solanum neorickii LA1329 seedlings support lower bacterial growth than Moneymaker-PtoS or susceptible S. neorickii LA1329. Bacterial counts were determined 4 days post-inoculation from S. neorickii LA1329 (n = 14) and Moneymaker-PtoS (n = 10) seedlings infected with PstT1 and normalization was performed to 0.01 g of tissue. For LA1329, the two phenotypic groups, susceptible (SUS) or resistant (RES), were observed and counted separately. Above the bar * = statistically significant difference determined by a one-factor analysis of variance. A general linear model procedure (p < 0.001) followed by a multiple comparison of means using Tukey's post hoc test was used. Error bars = standard error. The figure indicates one representative experiment. Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.
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Figure 7: Resistant Solanum neorickii LA1329 seedlings support lower bacterial growth than Moneymaker-PtoS or susceptible S. neorickii LA1329. Bacterial counts were determined 4 days post-inoculation from S. neorickii LA1329 (n = 14) and Moneymaker-PtoS (n = 10) seedlings infected with Pst19 and normalization was performed to 0.1 g of tissue. For LA1329, the two phenotypic groups, susceptible (SUS) or resistant (RES), were observed and counted separately. Above the bar * = statistically significant difference determined by a one-factor analysis of variance. A general linear model procedure (p < 0.001) followed by a multiple comparison of means using Tukey's post hoc test was used. Error bars = standard error. The figure indicates one representative experiment. Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.
The first paragraph of the Discussion section was updated from:
A protocol for flood inoculation with PstDC3000 or PstT1 optimized to detect resistance to these bacterial strains in tomato seedlings is described. There are several critical parameters for optimal results in the seedling resistance assay, including bacterial concentration and surfactant concentration, which were empirically determined22. For PstDC3000, the optical density was optimized to achieve complete survival on a resistant cultivar containing the Pto/Prf cluster and complete death on a susceptible cultivar lacking the Pto/Prf cluster22. For a strain such as PstT1, where there are no known resistant varieties, the optical density was optimized to be the lowest possible for consistent and complete plant death22. Uppalapati et al.24 designed a tomato seedling assay to investigate the pathogenesis of PstDC3000 and the virulence function of coronatine. In this virulence assay, infections were performed using bacteria concentrated to an OD600 of 0.124, 20x higher than the optical density of strains used in our resistance assay. Recognition of PstDC3000 effectors AvrPto and AvrPtoB in tomato seedlings carrying the Pto/Prf gene cluster results in ETI and a macroscopic HR22. In the context of a strong immune response such as ETI, a lower bacterial titer was used for PstDC3000 to avoid overwhelming genetic resistance from the Pto/Prf gene cluster22. In addition, these results suggest that a high bacterial concentration could overwhelm weaker immune responses such as PTI or quantitative partial resistance, where multiple genes contribute to the overall phenotype. Surfactant is necessary for the bacteria to adhere to the leaf surface; however, high concentrations can cause chlorosis of the leaf22. We previously tested a range of surfactant concentrations to empirically determine the ideal concentration in 10-day-old tomato seedlings22. When testing new species that may differ in their sensitivity to surfactant, the surfactant concentration should be optimized to identify a concentration that does not cause damage or chlorosis in the absence of bacteria. Appropriate assay conditions will require optimization of a surfactant concentration that does not cause damage, and a bacterial concentration that causes disease in all susceptible controls.
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A protocol for flood inoculation with PstDC3000 or Pst19 optimized to detect resistance to these bacterial strains in tomato seedlings is described. There are several critical parameters for optimal results in the seedling resistance assay, including bacterial concentration and surfactant concentration, which were empirically determined22. For PstDC3000, the optical density was optimized to achieve complete survival on a resistant cultivar containing the Pto/Prf cluster and complete death on a susceptible cultivar lacking the Pto/Prf cluster22. For a strain such as Pst19, where there are no known resistant varieties, the optical density was optimized to be the lowest possible for consistent and complete plant death22. Uppalapati et al.24 designed a tomato seedling assay to investigate the pathogenesis of PstDC3000 and the virulence function of coronatine. In this virulence assay, infections were performed using bacteria concentrated to an OD600 of 0.124, 20x higher than the optical density of strains used in our resistance assay. Recognition of PstDC3000 effectors AvrPto and AvrPtoB in tomato seedlings carrying the Pto/Prf gene cluster results in ETI and a macroscopic HR22. In the context of a strong immune response such as ETI, a lower bacterial titer was used for PstDC3000 to avoid overwhelming genetic resistance from the Pto/Prf gene cluster22. In addition, these results suggest that a high bacterial concentration could overwhelm weaker immune responses such as PTI or quantitative partial resistance, where multiple genes contribute to the overall phenotype. Surfactant is necessary for the bacteria to adhere to the leaf surface; however, high concentrations can cause chlorosis of the leaf22. We previously tested a range of surfactant concentrations to empirically determine the ideal concentration in 10-day-old tomato seedlings22. When testing new species that may differ in their sensitivity to surfactant, the surfactant concentration should be optimized to identify a concentration that does not cause damage or chlorosis in the absence of bacteria. Appropriate assay conditions will require optimization of a surfactant concentration that does not cause damage, and a bacterial concentration that causes disease in all susceptible controls.
The third paragraph of the Discussion section was updated from:
Pst is a foliar pathogen that preferentially colonizes the aerial parts of tomato seedlings, including the cotyledons24 (Figure 3). Therefore, qualitative phenotyping in the seedling flood assay focuses on growth and disease symptoms in aerial portions of the seedling, and tissue for the bacterial growth assay is sampled from the cotyledons for quantitative analysis. After flood inoculation, seedlings may die within 7–10 days after inoculation with PstDC3000 or 10–14 days after inoculation with PstT1, as discussed in section 11. Seedling death is visualized by a brown apical meristem, arrested epicotyl elongation, and/or arrested vegetative growth. If different bacterial strains are used, the timing will have to be empirically determined. In addition, the progression of disease on control plants should be monitored daily after flooding until a consistent time frame from the onset of disease symptoms to seedling death can be identified. Depending on the genotypes and treatments used in the flood assay, seedling phenotypes can be recorded as binary phenotypes or on a disease spectrum (Figure 4). A broader spectrum of phenotypes may be observed when flood inoculating F2 mapping populations from wild tomato accessions crossed to susceptible cultivars (Figure 4C). It may be best to phenotype segregating populations on a disease spectrum depending on how quickly the seedling dies and the degree of new vegetative growth and branching (Figure 4C). The seedling flood assay can also be used in conjunction with the seedling bacterial growth assay to quantitatively assess levels of bacterial growth associated with qualitative phenotypes in individual seedlings (Figure 7). Very large reductions (i.e., ~log 3) in bacterial growth or strong resistance in resistant seedlings of a wild accession compared to a susceptible cultivar suggest that the underlying genetic basis of resistance may be due to ETI22. Smaller reductions in bacterial growth (i.e., ~log 1.7), as observed in LA1329 seedlings, may be due to the contribution of weaker resistance from quantitative trait loci and/or PTI. Thus, the seedling growth assay can be an important tool in further characterizing resistance in wild tomato lines.
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Pst is a foliar pathogen that preferentially colonizes the aerial parts of tomato seedlings, including the cotyledons24 (Figure 3). Therefore, qualitative phenotyping in the seedling flood assay focuses on growth and disease symptoms in aerial portions of the seedling, and tissue for the bacterial growth assay is sampled from the cotyledons for quantitative analysis. After flood inoculation, seedlings may die within 7–10 days after inoculation with PstDC3000 or 10–14 days after inoculation with Pst19, as discussed in section 11. Seedling death is visualized by a brown apical meristem, arrested epicotyl elongation, and/or arrested vegetative growth. If different bacterial strains are used, the timing will have to be empirically determined. In addition, the progression of disease on control plants should be monitored daily after flooding until a consistent time frame from the onset of disease symptoms to seedling death can be identified. Depending on the genotypes and treatments used in the flood assay, seedling phenotypes can be recorded as binary phenotypes or on a disease spectrum (Figure 4). A broader spectrum of phenotypes may be observed when flood inoculating F2 mapping populations from wild tomato accessions crossed to susceptible cultivars (Figure 4C). It may be best to phenotype segregating populations on a disease spectrum depending on how quickly the seedling dies and the degree of new vegetative growth and branching (Figure 4C). The seedling flood assay can also be used in conjunction with the seedling bacterial growth assay to quantitatively assess levels of bacterial growth associated with qualitative phenotypes in individual seedlings (Figure 7). Very large reductions (i.e., ~log 3) in bacterial growth or strong resistance in resistant seedlings of a wild accession compared to a susceptible cultivar suggest that the underlying genetic basis of resistance may be due to ETI22. Smaller reductions in bacterial growth (i.e., ~log 1.7), as observed in LA1329 seedlings, may be due to the contribution of weaker resistance from quantitative trait loci and/or PTI. Thus, the seedling growth assay can be an important tool in further characterizing resistance in wild tomato lines.
The fourth paragraph of the Discussion section was updated from:
Typically, genetic screens have been performed on four- to five-week-old adult tomato plants to identify the genetic basis of P. syringae resistance in wild accessions20,21. Adult tomato plants require much longer growth times, require more space in the growth chamber, and are much larger plants, which means that usually few individuals are screened for each line. The seedling flood assay provides a powerful, alternative approach in the identification of P. syringae resistance in wild tomato accessions. Screening at the seedling stage permits a large sample size to be tested which can be particularly advantageous in detecting resistance in genetically complex populations. Reduced growth chamber space requirements and growth time facilitate a high-throughput approach and rapid detection of natural resistance in wild accessions to emerging pathogens. Furthermore, P. syringae resistance that was identified at the seedling stage in this assay is not restricted to the developmental stage. S. neorickii LA1329 and S. habrochaites LA1253 were initially identified at the seedling stage and also display resistance to PstT1 in adult plants as previously described22.
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Typically, genetic screens have been performed on four- to five-week-old adult tomato plants to identify the genetic basis of P. syringae resistance in wild accessions20,21. Adult tomato plants require much longer growth times, require more space in the growth chamber, and are much larger plants, which means that usually few individuals are screened for each line. The seedling flood assay provides a powerful, alternative approach in the identification of P. syringae resistance in wild tomato accessions. Screening at the seedling stage permits a large sample size to be tested which can be particularly advantageous in detecting resistance in genetically complex populations. Reduced growth chamber space requirements and growth time facilitate a high-throughput approach and rapid detection of natural resistance in wild accessions to emerging pathogens. Furthermore, P. syringae resistance that was identified at the seedling stage in this assay is not restricted to the developmental stage. S. neorickii LA1329 and S. habrochaites LA1253 were initially identified at the seedling stage and also display resistance to Pst19 in adult plants as previously described22.