엔탈피

Heat is energy transferred between objects due to temperature differences, while temperature measures the average kinetic energy of molecules in a substance. Two objects at the same temperature have equal thermal equilibrium, but different masses contain different amounts of thermal energy. For example, a large and small piece of hot aluminum at the same temperature have different total thermal energies because the larger piece has more molecules and mass.

The first law of thermodynamics states that energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transformed. In heat transfer, this means the total energy in an isolated system remains constant. When hot lead is placed in cold water inside a calorimeter, the heat lost by the lead equals the heat gained by the water. This principle validates that energy is conserved during thermal processes, similar to how energy and work are measured in mechanical systems.

The heat required depends on three factors: mass, material type, and temperature change, expressed as Q = mCΔT. Mass (m) affects heat directly—raising the temperature of 1 kg of aluminum requires more heat than 1 gram. Heat capacity (C) varies by material; wood has higher heat capacity than aluminum, so more heat is needed to raise wood's temperature by one degree. Temperature change (ΔT) is the difference between final and initial temperatures.

A calorimeter, like Styrofoam cups, provides a thermodynamically isolated system where heat cannot escape to surroundings. This isolation ensures that all heat lost by a hot object equals heat gained by a cold object, allowing accurate calculation of unknown heat capacities. By measuring mass, temperature changes, and using known heat capacity values, students can experimentally determine the heat capacity of materials like lead.

Heat spontaneously flows from hot to cold objects through different mechanisms. In thermal conduction, heat transfers directly between objects in contact, like ice melting in water. Thermal radiation transfers heat across distances without contact, such as the sun warming Earth. In open systems like a pot on a stove, some heat escapes to surroundings, while isolated systems like a thermos retain heat between objects inside.

When objects at different temperatures contact each other, heat flows from the hotter object to the cooler one until both reach the same temperature, called thermal equilibrium. During this process, the temperature of the cold object rises while the hot object's temperature falls. In an isolated system, the total thermal energy remains constant; heat lost by one object exactly equals heat gained by the other.

The heat capacity constant (C) in Q = mCΔT allows direct comparison of materials. A material with higher heat capacity requires more energy to raise its temperature by one degree. For instance, water has a higher heat capacity than aluminum, meaning 1 kg of water needs more heat than 1 kg of aluminum to increase temperature by the same amount. These values are empirically determined and tabulated for common substances.