Name: transcription and gene control
Uploaded: 2026-08-26T08:19:32.317Z
Duration: 2 min 9 s
Channel: JoVE

K12 Standards

Tennessee Academic Standards

High School

Biology

from-molecules-to-organisms-structures-and-processes

From Molecules to Organisms: Structures and Processes

BIO1.LS1.3

Transcription

- [Verteller] Transcriptie is het proces van het synthetiseren van RNA uit een DNA-model.
 In de kern wordt het pre-initiatiecomplex verzameld rond de core promotor van een gen, dat een basale transcriptiefactorenbindingsplaats omvat, hier een TATA-box, een bindingsplaats voor RNA-polymerase en de startplaats voor de transcriptie.
 Zodra de noodzakelijke componenten gebonden zijn, ontrolt het pre-initiatiecomplex een kort stukje DNA stroomopwaarts van de transcriptiestartplaats en begint RNA-polymerase een nieuwe mRNA-streng te produceren.
Nucleotiden worden &#xE9;&#xE9;n voor &#xE9;&#xE9;n toegevoegd en de synthese van het mRNA vindt plaats in een 5&#x27; naar 3&#x27; richting, gemeten vanaf de modelstreng.
 Deze nieuw gecre&#xEB;erde mRNA-streng vertegenwoordigt een kopie van de informatie in de coderende streng, behalve dat de thymidines vervangen zijn door uracils.
 De synthese zal doorgaan tot er een terminatiesequentie wordt aangetroffen, waardoor het nieuw gemaakte mRNA vrijkomt en verdere verwerking mogelijk wordt.

transcriptie

<h4>Overzicht</h4>

Transcriptie is het proces waarbij RNA uit een DNA-sequentie wordt gesynthetiseerd door RNA-polymerase. Het is de eerste stap bij het produceren van een eiwit uit een gensequentie. Bovendien zijn veel andere eiwitten en regulerende sequenties betrokken bij de juiste synthese van boodschapper-RNA (mRNA). Regulatie van transcriptie is verantwoordelijk voor de differentiatie van alle verschillende soorten cellen en vaak voor de juiste cellulaire reactie op omgevingssignalen.

<h4>Transcriptie kan verschillende soorten RNA-moleculen produceren</h4>

Bij eukaryoten wordt het DNA eerst getranscribeerd tot primair RNA, of pre-mRNA, dat verder kan worden verwerkt tot een volwassen mRNA dat als sjabloon kan dienen voor de synthese van eiwitten. In prokaryoten zoals bacteri&#xEB;n kan de vertaling van RNA in polypeptiden echter beginnen terwijl de transcriptie nog aan de gang is, omdat RNA snel kan worden afgebroken. Transcriptie kan ook verschillende soorten RNA-moleculen produceren die niet coderen voor eiwitten, zoals microRNA&#x27;s, transfer-RNA (tRNA) en ribosomaal RNA (rRNA)&#x2014; die allemaal bijdragen aan de eiwitsynthese.

<h4>Regulering van transcriptie staat centraal in de ontwikkeling</h4>

Op enkele uitzonderingen na hebben alle cellen in het menselijk lichaam dezelfde genetische informatie, van neuronen in de hersenen tot spiercellen in het hart. Hoe kunnen cellen dan zulke uiteenlopende vormen en functies aannemen? Het antwoord ligt voor een groot deel in de regulatie van transcriptie tijdens de ontwikkeling van het organisme. In het bijzonder speelt transcriptionele regulatie een centrale rol bij cellulaire differentiatie &#x2013; het proces van het produceren van gespecialiseerde cellen, zoals spiercellen, uit de minder gespecialiseerde voorlopercellen. Sommige genen in de voorlopercellen moeten worden ingeschakeld en andere moeten worden uitgeschakeld om de gespecialiseerde cellen te produceren.

Dit proces van cellulaire differentiatie wordt georkestreerd door DNA-bindende eiwitten, transcriptiefactoren genaamd, die het niveau van transcriptie controleren van genen die het lot van de cel kunnen bepalen. Vroeg tijdens de ontwikkeling van gewervelde dieren ontvangen cellen in de ectodermlaag van het zich ontwikkelende embryo bijvoorbeeld verschillende inductiesignalen van eiwitten zoals BMP, WNT en SHH. Deze signalen activeren transcriptiefactoren die een groot aantal genen aan of uit zetten. Op deze manier bepaalt transcriptionele regulatie of ectodermcellen huidcellen of cellen van het zenuwstelsel worden.

<h4>Reageren op de omgeving vereist vaak transcriptionele veranderingen</h4>

Omgevingen zijn zelden langdurig stabiel. Denk bijvoorbeeld aan de veranderingen in temperatuur, buffers en voedselbeschikbaarheid waaraan een plant van dag tot dag en soms van uur tot uur wordt blootgesteld. Om goed te kunnen functioneren, moeten individuele organismen op dergelijke veranderingen in de omgeving reageren door belangrijke eigenschappen aan te passen, zoals hun groeisnelheid, immuniteit of gedrag. Deze aanpassingen vereisen vaak het verhogen of verlagen van het transcriptieniveau van grote aantallen genen. Wanneer Arabidopsis thaliana planten bijvoorbeeld worden blootgesteld aan droogte, passen ze snel de transcriptie van honderden genen aan om de wortelgroei te vergroten en daardoor zoveel mogelijk water uit de grond te halen.

Transcriptie

Overview
Transcription is the process of synthesizing RNA from a DNA sequence by RNA polymerase. It is the first step in producing a protein from a gene ...

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transcription and gene control

Transcription and gene control explain how cells make RNA from DNA and decide which genes are active. RNA polymerase copies a DNA sequence into RNA, and this is the first step in making a protein from a gene. Many other proteins and control sequences help make messenger RNA, or mRNA, correctly.

In eukaryotes, the DNA is first copied into a primary RNA, also called pre-mRNA. This RNA can then be processed into mature mRNA, which serves as the template for protein synthesis. In prokaryotes such as bacteria, translation can begin while transcription is still happening. In these cells, RNA can also break down quickly.

Transcription does not only produce mRNA. It can also make noncoding RNA molecules such as microRNAs, transfer RNA, or tRNA, and ribosomal RNA, or rRNA. These RNAs do not code for protein, but they still support protein synthesis.

Control of transcription is also central to development and cell specialization. Most cells in the human body carry the same genetic information, yet neurons and muscle cells look and act very differently. That difference comes from cellular differentiation, the process of making specialized cells from less specialized precursor cells. Some genes must be turned on, and others must be turned off, for this to happen. DNA-binding proteins called transcription factors help control the transcription levels of genes that influence cell fate.

Early in vertebrate development, ectoderm cells in the embryo receive induction signals from proteins such as BMP, WNT, and SHH. These signals activate transcription factors that change gene activity. In this way, transcriptional regulation helps decide whether ectoderm cells become skin cells or cells of the nervous system.

Cells also change transcription to respond to their environment. Temperature, precipitation, and food availability can shift from day to day, and organisms must adjust growth, immunity, or behavior. These changes often require large shifts in gene transcription. For example, Arabidopsis thaliana plants exposed to drought quickly adjust the transcription of hundreds of genes to increase root growth and take up more water from the soil.

Transcription and Gene Control

the dna helix

How DNA Stores Genetic Information

DNA stores genetic information that is passed from one generation to the next in organisms and most viruses. It is built from two strands of nucleotides that twist together into a double helix. The story of how scientists uncovered this structure developed step by step over nearly a century. Each DNA strand is made of nucleotides. A nucleotide contains the sugar deoxyribose, a phosphate group, and one of four nitrogen bases: adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), or thymine (T). Adenine and...

dna packaging

Chromatin and Histones in DNA Packing

Eukaryotic cells must pack long DNA molecules into the nucleus, and chromatin makes that possible. DNA wraps around proteins called histones to form nucleosomes, which are the main unit of DNA packaging. Nucleosomes then coil into compact chromatin fibers. The amount of DNA in a cell is much larger than it first seems. A single human skin cell has about 3 billion base pairs of DNA, and if that DNA were stretched out in a line, it would be about 2 meters long. With about 50 trillion cells in...

organization of genes

Genes, Introns, and Regulatory DNA

Eukaryotic genes are arranged within DNA along with non-coding regions that help control gene activity. A DNA strand includes genes and intergenic regions, which are the stretches between genes. These regions do not code for proteins, but they can contain important regulatory elements such as promoters, enhancers, and silencers. A gene itself is not a single continuous coding block. It usually contains protein-coding exons and non-coding introns. After DNA is transcribed into pre-mRNA in the...

karyotyping

Chromosome Stains for Detecting Disorders

Chromosome staining helps scientists find genetic disorders by showing the number and physical features of chromosomes. These features appear after DNA condenses into chromosomes during mitosis. Cytogeneticists then stop mitosis and stain the chromosomes to study their banding pattern. The pattern reveals details such as chromosome number, shape, and type. A chromosome description like this is called a karyotype. To create one, scientists take an image of the stained chromosomes and identify...

replication in prokaryotes

How Prokaryotic DNA Is Copied

Prokaryotic DNA is copied through a coordinated process with three main stages: initiation, elongation, and termination. It begins when initiator proteins bind to the single origin of replication, or ori, on the cell’s circular chromosome. The DNA then copies around the circle in both directions, starting from two replication forks, and this produces two DNA molecules. Several proteins work together to open and protect the DNA during replication. Topoisomerase cuts one side of the...

replication in eukaryotes

Eukaryotic DNA Copying and Telomeres

Eukaryotic DNA copying is tightly regulated and must duplicate many linear chromosomes before cell division. The process is highly conserved and uses many proteins with specialized roles. It moves through initiation, elongation, and termination, and it ends with two complete sets of chromosomes in the nucleus. Eukaryotic replication shares basic steps with prokaryotic DNA replication, but the larger genome and linear chromosomes require more proteins. Replication begins at multiple origins of...

proofreading

DNA Polymerase Fixes Replication Errors

DNA polymerase helps copy DNA and fix mistakes during replication. It adds nucleotides in a sequence that matches the template DNA strand. The enzyme also has a higher affinity for the correct base, which helps keep DNA replication accurate. As new genomic DNA is made, it is synthesized in the 5’ to 3’ direction. In many cells, DNA polymerases have different jobs in this process. DNA polymerase delta and DNA polymerase epsilon can proofread when nuclear DNA is being copied. These polymerases...

mismatch repair

DNA Mismatch Repair in Replication

DNA mismatch repair fixes copying errors that happen during DNA replication. When DNA polymerase makes a mistake, the cell can detect a wrong base pair, such as A with G or T with C, and replace it with the correct nucleotide. This repair system works in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes and depends on several proteins. The Mutator protein family plays a central role in this process. In bacteria such as Escherichia coli, MutS first binds the mismatch. MutL then helps identify which strand is the...

nucleotide excision repair

DNA Damage Repair by Excision

DNA damage repair by excision protects cells from mutagens that can change DNA. Exposure to environmental mutagens can create bulky lesions that bend the double helix or block transcription. If these changes are not repaired, they can lead to mutations and may contribute to cancer or disease, depending on which DNA sequences are affected. Nucleotide excision repair, or NER, is the process that detects and removes this kind of damage. Specialized proteins scan the DNA for a damaged region, then...

mutations

DNA Changes From Point Mutations to UV Damage

Mutations are changes in the DNA sequence. They can happen by chance during DNA copying, or they can be caused by environmental factors such as radiation and chemicals. Scientists also describe mutations by how much DNA they affect, how they change a protein, and whether they happen in body cells or germline cells. Some mutations affect only one nucleotide, which is a point mutation. When a point mutation falls inside a gene, the outcome depends on how the amino acid sequence changes. A silent...

transcription

Transcription and gene control explain how cells make RNA from DNA and decide which genes are active. RNA polymerase copies a DNA sequence into RNA, and this is the first step in making a protein from a gene. Many other proteins and control sequences help make messenger RNA, or mRNA, correctly. In eukaryotes, the DNA is first copied into a primary RNA, also called pre-mRNA. This RNA can then be processed into mature mRNA, which serves as the template for protein synthesis. In prokaryotes such...

translation

Protein Synthesis and mRNA Decoding

Protein synthesis begins when ribosomes decode messenger RNA (mRNA) and build a chain of amino acids. This final step of gene expression is called translation. The finished chain is a polypeptide, which can later become a functional protein. Proteins are often called the building blocks of life because they make up much of the body, from muscle fibers to hairs and immune system parts. The instructions for each protein are encoded in genes found in the DNA of every cell. In biology, the central...

bacterial transformation

Griffith’s Mouse Experiment and DNA

Bacterial transformation explains how DNA can move into bacteria and change their traits. Frederick Griffith first noticed this in 1928 while studying pneumonia-causing Streptococcus pneumoniae in mice. He compared one pathogenic strain with one non-pathogenic strain and found that only the pathogenic strain killed the host mice. Griffith made an unexpected discovery when he killed the pathogenic bacteria and mixed their remains with live, non-pathogenic bacteria. The mixture killed the mice,...

key terms and concepts

Explore how transcription makes RNA from DNA, supports mRNA and other RNAs, and helps cells develop and respond to environmental change.

Transcription and Gene Control | JoVE K12

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Virginia  Standards of Learning

HIgh School

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LS.10

LS.10.a

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New Jersey Student Learning Standards for Science

HS-LS1-1

Arizona Science Standards

HS+B.L3

HS+B.L3U1.11

Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills

BIO.7

BIO.7.B

Characteristics of Life

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the-tree-of-life-bacteria-archaea-and-eukaryotes

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Compare and contrast existing models, identify patterns, and use structural and functional evidence to analyze the characteristics of life. Engage in argument about the designation of viruses as non-living based on these characteristics.
EXPLANATION: Students begin to develop patterns of living and non-living organisms in kindergarten and build on detailed characteristics of different classifications of living organisms throughout elementary and middle school. Biology 1 discussions introduce viral particles and viral cycles, building on student understanding of living organisms to engage in an argument regarding the classification of a viral particle as either living or non-living.

BIO1.LS1.1

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Animal and Plant Cell Structure

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Evaluate comparative models of various cell types with a focus on organic molecules that make up cellular structures.
EXPLANATION: Students explicitly discuss the structure and function of major cellular organelles in seventh grade. Building on this understanding, Biology I students should shift their focus to the different types of cells found in organisms and how the role of each cell type relates to its composition and the prevalence of different organelles within that cell. An example might include the absence (or enucleation) of the nucleus in red blood cells in mammals providing for increased levels of oxygen transport in organisms or the lack of centrioles in most neurons. Varying cell types can include both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell types.

BIO1.LS1.2

Nucleic Acids

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The DNA Helix

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DNA Base Pairing

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The Central Dogma

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RNA is the Missing Link Between ...

DNA Packaging

Overview

Eukaryotes have large genomes compared to prokaryotes. In order to fit their genomes into a cell, eukaryotes must pack their DNA tightly inside ...

Organization of Genes

Overview

The genomes of eukaryotes can be structured in several functional categories. A strand of DNA is comprised of genes and intergenic regions. ...

Karyotyping

Describing the number and physical features of chromosomes can reveal abnormalities that underlie genetic diseases. This description is facilitated by ...

Replication in Prokaryotes

Overview

DNA replication has three main steps: initiation, elongation, and termination. Replication in prokaryotes begins when initiator proteins bind to ...

Replication in Eukaryotes

Overview

In eukaryotic cells, DNA replication is highly conserved and tightly regulated. Multiple linear chromosomes must be duplicated with high ...

Mutations

Overview

Mutations are changes in the sequence of DNA. These changes can occur spontaneously or they can be induced by exposure to environmental factors. ...

Translation

Lesson: Translation
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RNA Structure

Overview
The basic structure of RNA consists of a five-carbon sugar and one of four nitrogenous bases. Although most RNA is single-stranded, it can form ...

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pre-mRNA Processing

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Types of RNA

Overview
Three main types of RNA are involved in protein synthesis: messenger RNA (mRNA), transfer RNA (tRNA), and ribosomal RNA (rRNA). These RNAs ...

MicroRNAs

siRNA - Small Interfering RNAs

Small interfering RNAs, or siRNAs, are short regulatory RNA molecules that can silence genes post-transcriptionally, as well as the transcriptional ...

piRNA - Piwi-interacting RNAs

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CRISPR and crRNAs

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lncRNA - Long Non-coding RNAs

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Protein Folding

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conservation-of-protein-domains-over-different-proteins

Conservation of Protein Domains Over Different Proteins

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Globular and Fibrous Proteins

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Intrinsically Disordered Proteins

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Protein Complex Assembly

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Conjugated Proteins

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Allosteric Proteins-ATCase

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Amyloid Fibrils

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Cooperative Allosteric Transitions

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Antibody Structure

Phosphorylation

Ligand Binding Sites

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Protein Kinases and Phosphatases

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Protein-protein Interfaces

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GTPases and their Regulation

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Conserved Binding Sites

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Covalently Linked Protein Regulators

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The Equilibrium Binding Constant and Binding Strength

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Protein Complexes with Interchangeable Parts

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Cofactors and Coenzymes

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Allosteric Regulation

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Ligand Binding and Linkage

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Integrate evidence to develop a structural model of a DNA molecule. Using the model, develop and communicate an explanation for how DNA serves as a template for self-replication and encodes biological information.
EXPLANATION: Discussions of DNA in earlier grades have been limited to discussions of genes and the role of genes in the appearance and activities of an organism. Biology 1 represents a student's introduction to a molecular model of a DNA as well as the organization of DNA into genes and genes subsequently into chromosomes. Students should address interactions between genes in proteins which regulate both the shape and reproduction of DNA molecules. It is important to note that not all segments of DNA are transcribed for proteins. Portions of DNA are involved in regulating the expression of genes or affect the structure of the chromosomes (replication origin, centromeres, and telomeres).

What is the Cell Cycle?

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Create a model for the major events of the eukaryotic cell cycle, including mitosis. Compare and contrast the rates of cell division in various eukaryotic cell types in multicellular organisms.
EXPLANATION: Students first discuss mitosis in seventh grade, specifically focusing on the role of mitosis in creating genetically identical daughter cells. Biology 1 discussions should connect a student's understanding of gene expression and protein function with the process of mitosis to explore the differentiation of cell types from otherwise identical daughter cells. Discussions should also include varying rates of mitotic division and the relationship between these rates of division and the function of specific cell types within eukaryotic organisms. Examples may include the extremely limited use of mitosis by neurons due to their interconnectedness within neural networks or the rapid rates of mitosis with growing root tips.

BIO1.LS1.6

Transcription and Gene Control

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