Name: how dna stores genetic information
Uploaded: 2026-08-26T08:20:41.267Z
Duration: 1 min 27 s
Channel: JoVE

K12 Standards

Pennsylvania State Academic Standards

9-12

Life Science

Structure and Function

3.1.9-12.A

The DNA Helix

Deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA, consists of two polynucleotide chains. Each one is made up of four types of nucleotide subunits, which consist of a single phosphate group and a nitrogen-containing base, adenine, A, cytosine, C, guanine, G, or thymine, T, attached to a sugar deoxyribose. This arrangement creates the sugar-phosphate backbone of the DNA structure.

On one strand, the sugar is oriented with the hydroxyl group exposed at the third carbon atom, which is ready to covalently link to another sugar molecule in the chain at the fifth carbon atom via phosphodiester bonds.

In the opposing antiparallel strand, each base is uniquely paired, C with G and A with T, thanks to differences in the number of hydrogen bonds that form between them.&#xA0;

Such chemical polarity ensures efficient packing, winding the two strands around each other to form a 3-D double helix with ten base pairs every full turn.

Módl się, Leslie. "Odkrycie struktury i funkcji DNA: Watson i Crick." Edukacja Przyrodnicza 1, nr 1 (2008): 100. [<a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/discovery-of-dna-structure-and-function-watson-397">Źródło</a>]

spirala dna

<h4>Przegl&#x105;d</h4>

Kwas dezoksyrybonukleinowy, czyli DNA, to materia&#x142; genetyczny odpowiedzialny za przekazywanie cech z pokolenia na pokolenie we wszystkich organizmach i wi&#x119;kszo&#x15B;ci wirus&#xF3;w. DNA sk&#x142;ada si&#x119; z dw&#xF3;ch nici nukleotyd&#xF3;w, kt&#xF3;re owijaj&#x105; si&#x119; wok&#xF3;&#x142; siebie, tworz&#x105;c podw&#xF3;jn&#x105; helis&#x119;. Odkrywanie struktury DNA nast&#x119;powa&#x142;o stopniowo przez prawie sto lat, co stanowi jedn&#x105; z najs&#x142;ynniejszych i najbardziej urzekaj&#x105;cych historii w historii nauki.

<h4>Szczeg&#xF3;&#x142;owa struktura DNA</h4>

Ka&#x17C;da ni&#x107; DNA sk&#x142;ada si&#x119; z podjednostek zwanych nukleotydami, kt&#xF3;re zawieraj&#x105; cukrow&#x105; dezoksyryboz&#x119;, grup&#x119; fosforanow&#x105; i jedn&#x105; z czterech zasad zawieraj&#x105;cych azot: adenin&#x119; (A), guanin&#x119; (G), cytozyn&#x119; (C) i tymin&#x119; (T). Adenina i guanina nale&#x17C;&#x105; do wi&#x119;kszej klasy substancji chemicznych zwanych purynami, z kt&#xF3;rych wszystkie zawieraj&#x105; struktury dwupier&#x15B;cieniowe. Cytozyna i tymina nale&#x17C;&#x105; do grupy struktur jednopier&#x15B;cieniowych zwanych pirymidynami.

S&#x105;siednie nukleotydy w tej samej nici s&#x105; kowalencyjnie po&#x142;&#x105;czone wi&#x105;zaniami fosfodiestrowymi. Dwie nici nukleotyd&#xF3;w s&#x105; po&#x142;&#x105;czone wi&#x105;zaniami wodorowymi, w kt&#xF3;rych adeniny w jednej nici tworz&#x105; par&#x119; z tyminami w tej samej pozycji w drugiej nici, a cytozyny w jednej parze nici z guaninami w tej samej pozycji w drugiej nici. To wi&#x105;zanie wodorowe jest mo&#x17C;liwe dzi&#x119;ki antyr&#xF3;wnoleg&#x142;emu u&#x142;o&#x17C;eniu dw&#xF3;ch nici DNA, w kt&#xF3;rym ko&#x144;ce 5&#x2019; i 3&#x2019; nici s&#x105; zorientowane w przeciwnych kierunkach. Bez tego uk&#x142;adu nukleotydy znajdowa&#x142;yby si&#x119; w niew&#x142;a&#x15B;ciwej pozycji, aby tworzy&#x107; wi&#x105;zania wodorowe mi&#x119;dzy niciami.

Dwie nici cz&#x105;steczki DNA s&#x105; &#x15B;ci&#x15B;le owini&#x119;te w spr&#x119;&#x17C;yst&#x105; struktur&#x119; zwan&#x105; podw&#xF3;jn&#x105; helis&#x105;. Jednak podw&#xF3;jna helisa nie jest idealnie symetryczna. Zamiast tego w konstrukcji regularnie wyst&#x119;puj&#x105; rowki. G&#x142;&#xF3;wny rowek wyst&#x119;puje tam, gdzie szkielety cukrowo-fosforanowe s&#x105; stosunkowo daleko od siebie. Ta przestrze&#x144; zapewnia dost&#x119;p do bia&#x142;ek wi&#x105;&#x17C;&#x105;cych DNA, takich jak czynniki transkrypcyjne. Natomiast mniejszy rowek wyst&#x119;puje tam, gdzie szkielety cukrowo-fosforanowe s&#x105; blisko siebie. Stosunkowo niewiele bia&#x142;ek wi&#x105;&#x17C;e si&#x119; z DNA poprzez mniejszy rowek.

<h4>Odkrycie struktury DNA: kr&#xF3;tka historia</h4>

Historia odkrycia struktury DNA rozpoczyna si&#x119; w 1869 roku, kiedy szwajcarski naukowiec Friedrich Miescher odkry&#x142; substancj&#x119;, kt&#xF3;r&#x105; nazwa&#x142; &#x2018;nuklein&#x105;&#x2018;. W procesie ekstrakcji bia&#x142;ka z bia&#x142;ych krwinek Miescher odkry&#x142; nieoczekiwan&#x105; substancj&#x119; o stosunkowo wysokiej zawarto&#x15B;ci fosforu. Nie wiedzia&#x142;, co to by&#x142;o, ale podejrzewa&#x142;, &#x17C;e mo&#x17C;e to mie&#x107; znaczenie biologiczne. Miescher mia&#x142; racj&#x119;, ale spo&#x142;eczno&#x15B;&#x107; naukowa potrzebowa&#x142;a dziesi&#x119;cioleci, aby w pe&#x142;ni doceni&#x107; jego spostrze&#x17C;enia.

Kolejnego krytycznego odkrycia dokona&#x142; rosyjski biochemik Phoebus Levene. W 1919 roku Levene zaproponowa&#x142;, &#x17C;e nukleina, znana w&#xF3;wczas jako kwas nukleinowy, sk&#x142;ada si&#x119; z &#x142;a&#x144;cuch&#xF3;w cz&#x105;steczek, kt&#xF3;re nazwa&#x142; polinukleotydami. Propozycja Levene&#x2019;a wynika&#x142;a z jego bada&#x144; nad dro&#x17C;d&#x17C;ami, podczas kt&#xF3;rych odkry&#x142;, &#x17C;e poszczeg&#xF3;lne nukleotydy sk&#x142;adaj&#x105; si&#x119; z grupy fosforanowej, cukru i zasady zawieraj&#x105;cej azot. Chocia&#x17C; model polinukleotydowy Levena by&#x142; pod wieloma wzgl&#x119;dami poprawny, nadal nie by&#x142;o jasne, w jaki spos&#xF3;b zasady s&#x105; u&#x142;o&#x17C;one w cz&#x105;steczce DNA.

Austriacki biochemik Erwin Chargaff rozwin&#x105;&#x142; prace Levene&#x2019;a. Pracuj&#x105;c pod koniec lat czterdziestych XX wieku, Chargaff dokona&#x142; kluczowego odkrycia: ilo&#x15B;&#x107; adeniny w DNA jest zawsze w przybli&#x17C;eniu r&#xF3;wna ilo&#x15B;ci tyminy, a ilo&#x15B;&#x107; guaniny jest zawsze w przybli&#x17C;eniu r&#xF3;wna ilo&#x15B;ci cytozyny. Wz&#xF3;r ten sta&#x142; si&#x119; znany jako regu&#x142;a Chargaffa i by&#x142; kluczowym dowodem umo&#x17C;liwiaj&#x105;cym ostateczne wyja&#x15B;nienie struktury DNA.

We wczesnych latach pi&#x119;&#x107;dziesi&#x105;tych ameryka&#x144;ski biolog James Watson i angielski fizyk Francis Crick &#x15B;cigali si&#x119; ze swoim g&#x142;&#xF3;wnym rywalem, Amerykaninem Linusem Paulingiem, w celu odkrycia tr&#xF3;jwymiarowej struktury DNA. Opieraj&#x105;c si&#x119; na pracach Chargaffa, wykorzystali wiedz&#x119; z zakresu fizyki, matematyki i chemii do skonstruowania fizycznych modeli DNA. Nie uda&#x142;o im si&#x119; to jednak, dop&#xF3;ki nie otrzymali kluczowych danych: rentgenowskiego &#x2018;zdj&#x119;cia&#x2018; DNA, kt&#xF3;re szczeg&#xF3;&#x142;owo wskazywa&#x142;o jego podw&#xF3;jn&#x105; helikaln&#x105; struktur&#x119;. To zdj&#x119;cie stanowi&#x142;o niepublikowane dane fizyki Rosalind Franklin i zosta&#x142;o przekazane Watsonowi i Crickowi bez wiedzy Franklina. Watson i Crick opublikowali sw&#xF3;j opis struktury DNA w 1953 roku i wraz z Mauriceem Wilkinsem (wsp&#xF3;&#x142;pracownikiem Franklina) zdobyli za to odkrycie Nagrod&#x119; Nobla w dziedzinie fizjologii lub medycyny w 1962 roku. Niestety Franklin zmar&#x142; w 1958 roku i dlatego nie kwalifikowa&#x142; si&#x119; do Nagrody Nobla.

Spirala DNA

Overview

Deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA, is the genetic material responsible for passing traits from generation to generation in all organisms and most ...

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Education

JoVE Core

Biology

Biologia

Genetics

Genetyka

DNA Structure and Function

Struktura i funkcje DNA

KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS

Kluczowe terminy i pojęcia

how dna stores genetic information

DNA stores genetic information that is passed from one generation to the next in organisms and most viruses. It is built from two strands of nucleotides that twist together into a double helix. The story of how scientists uncovered this structure developed step by step over nearly a century.

Each DNA strand is made of nucleotides. A nucleotide contains the sugar deoxyribose, a phosphate group, and one of four nitrogen bases: adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), or thymine (T). Adenine and guanine are purines, which have two-ring structures, while cytosine and thymine are pyrimidines, which have one ring.

Nucleotides within a strand are linked by phosphodiester bonds. The two strands are held together by hydrogen bonds between matching bases. Adenine pairs with thymine, and cytosine pairs with guanine. This pairing works because the two strands run in opposite directions, or antiparallel, with 5' and 3' ends oriented oppositely.

The twisted DNA molecule forms a spring-like double helix. It is not perfectly even, because it has repeating grooves. The major groove is where the sugar-phosphate backbones are farther apart, and it gives DNA-binding proteins such as transcription factors better access. The minor groove is narrower, and relatively few proteins bind there.

The history of DNA research began in 1869, when Swiss scientist Friedrich Miescher found a phosphorus-rich substance he called nuclein while extracting protein from white blood cells. He did not know what it was, but he suspected it mattered biologically. His insight turned out to be important, although it took many years for scientists to understand why.

In 1919, Russian biochemist Phoebus Levene proposed that nuclein, then called a nucleic acid, was made of chains he named polynucleotides. His work on yeast showed that each nucleotide includes a phosphate group, a sugar, and a nitrogen-containing base. Even so, the exact arrangement of the bases in DNA was still unknown.

That question was helped by Erwin Chargaff in the late 1940s. He found that the amount of adenine is usually about equal to thymine, and the amount of guanine is usually about equal to cytosine. This became known as Chargaff's Rule and became a key clue for the final DNA model.

In the early 1950s, James Watson and Francis Crick competed with Linus Pauling to solve DNA's three-dimensional structure. They used ideas from physics, mathematics, and chemistry to build models, but they needed one more key clue. That clue came from an X-ray photograph of DNA that showed its double-helix shape in detail. The image was unpublished data from Rosalind Franklin and was shared with Watson and Crick without her knowledge.

Watson and Crick published their description of DNA structure in 1953. Together with Maurice Wilkins, they later received the 1962 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for the discovery. Franklin had died in 1958, so she was not eligible for the prize.

How DNA Stores Genetic Information

the dna helix

DNA stores genetic information that is passed from one generation to the next in organisms and most viruses. It is built from two strands of nucleotides that twist together into a double helix. The story of how scientists uncovered this structure developed step by step over nearly a century. Each DNA strand is made of nucleotides. A nucleotide contains the sugar deoxyribose, a phosphate group, and one of four nitrogen bases: adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), or thymine (T). Adenine and...

dna packaging

Chromatin and Histones in DNA Packing

Eukaryotic cells must pack long DNA molecules into the nucleus, and chromatin makes that possible. DNA wraps around proteins called histones to form nucleosomes, which are the main unit of DNA packaging. Nucleosomes then coil into compact chromatin fibers. The amount of DNA in a cell is much larger than it first seems. A single human skin cell has about 3 billion base pairs of DNA, and if that DNA were stretched out in a line, it would be about 2 meters long. With about 50 trillion cells in...

organization of genes

Genes, Introns, and Regulatory DNA

Eukaryotic genes are arranged within DNA along with non-coding regions that help control gene activity. A DNA strand includes genes and intergenic regions, which are the stretches between genes. These regions do not code for proteins, but they can contain important regulatory elements such as promoters, enhancers, and silencers. A gene itself is not a single continuous coding block. It usually contains protein-coding exons and non-coding introns. After DNA is transcribed into pre-mRNA in the...

karyotyping

Chromosome Stains for Detecting Disorders

Chromosome staining helps scientists find genetic disorders by showing the number and physical features of chromosomes. These features appear after DNA condenses into chromosomes during mitosis. Cytogeneticists then stop mitosis and stain the chromosomes to study their banding pattern. The pattern reveals details such as chromosome number, shape, and type. A chromosome description like this is called a karyotype. To create one, scientists take an image of the stained chromosomes and identify...

replication in prokaryotes

How Prokaryotic DNA Is Copied

Prokaryotic DNA is copied through a coordinated process with three main stages: initiation, elongation, and termination. It begins when initiator proteins bind to the single origin of replication, or ori, on the cell’s circular chromosome. The DNA then copies around the circle in both directions, starting from two replication forks, and this produces two DNA molecules. Several proteins work together to open and protect the DNA during replication. Topoisomerase cuts one side of the...

replication in eukaryotes

Eukaryotic DNA Copying and Telomeres

Eukaryotic DNA copying is tightly regulated and must duplicate many linear chromosomes before cell division. The process is highly conserved and uses many proteins with specialized roles. It moves through initiation, elongation, and termination, and it ends with two complete sets of chromosomes in the nucleus. Eukaryotic replication shares basic steps with prokaryotic DNA replication, but the larger genome and linear chromosomes require more proteins. Replication begins at multiple origins of...

proofreading

DNA Polymerase Fixes Replication Errors

DNA polymerase helps copy DNA and fix mistakes during replication. It adds nucleotides in a sequence that matches the template DNA strand. The enzyme also has a higher affinity for the correct base, which helps keep DNA replication accurate. As new genomic DNA is made, it is synthesized in the 5’ to 3’ direction. In many cells, DNA polymerases have different jobs in this process. DNA polymerase delta and DNA polymerase epsilon can proofread when nuclear DNA is being copied. These polymerases...

mismatch repair

DNA Mismatch Repair in Replication

DNA mismatch repair fixes copying errors that happen during DNA replication. When DNA polymerase makes a mistake, the cell can detect a wrong base pair, such as A with G or T with C, and replace it with the correct nucleotide. This repair system works in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes and depends on several proteins. The Mutator protein family plays a central role in this process. In bacteria such as Escherichia coli, MutS first binds the mismatch. MutL then helps identify which strand is the...

nucleotide excision repair

DNA Damage Repair by Excision

DNA damage repair by excision protects cells from mutagens that can change DNA. Exposure to environmental mutagens can create bulky lesions that bend the double helix or block transcription. If these changes are not repaired, they can lead to mutations and may contribute to cancer or disease, depending on which DNA sequences are affected. Nucleotide excision repair, or NER, is the process that detects and removes this kind of damage. Specialized proteins scan the DNA for a damaged region, then...

mutations

DNA Changes From Point Mutations to UV Damage

Mutations are changes in the DNA sequence. They can happen by chance during DNA copying, or they can be caused by environmental factors such as radiation and chemicals. Scientists also describe mutations by how much DNA they affect, how they change a protein, and whether they happen in body cells or germline cells. Some mutations affect only one nucleotide, which is a point mutation. When a point mutation falls inside a gene, the outcome depends on how the amino acid sequence changes. A silent...

transcription

Transcription and Gene Control

Transcription and gene control explain how cells make RNA from DNA and decide which genes are active. RNA polymerase copies a DNA sequence into RNA, and this is the first step in making a protein from a gene. Many other proteins and control sequences help make messenger RNA, or mRNA, correctly. In eukaryotes, the DNA is first copied into a primary RNA, also called pre-mRNA. This RNA can then be processed into mature mRNA, which serves as the template for protein synthesis. In prokaryotes such...

translation

Protein Synthesis and mRNA Decoding

Protein synthesis begins when ribosomes decode messenger RNA (mRNA) and build a chain of amino acids. This final step of gene expression is called translation. The finished chain is a polypeptide, which can later become a functional protein. Proteins are often called the building blocks of life because they make up much of the body, from muscle fibers to hairs and immune system parts. The instructions for each protein are encoded in genes found in the DNA of every cell. In biology, the central...

bacterial transformation

Griffith’s Mouse Experiment and DNA

Bacterial transformation explains how DNA can move into bacteria and change their traits. Frederick Griffith first noticed this in 1928 while studying pneumonia-causing Streptococcus pneumoniae in mice. He compared one pathogenic strain with one non-pathogenic strain and found that only the pathogenic strain killed the host mice. Griffith made an unexpected discovery when he killed the pathogenic bacteria and mixed their remains with live, non-pathogenic bacteria. The mixture killed the mice,...

key terms and concepts

Learn how DNA stores genetic information through base pairing, the double helix, and the key discoveries by Miescher, Chargaff, Watson, Crick, and Franklin.

How DNA Stores Genetic Information | JoVE K12

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Life Sciences

from-molecules-to-organisms-structures-and-processes

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From Molecules to Organisms: Structures and Processes

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Eukaryotic Compartmentalization

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DNA as a Genetic Template

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DNA Packaging

Overview

Eukaryotes have large genomes compared to prokaryotes. In order to fit their genomes into a cell, eukaryotes must pack their DNA tightly inside ...

Organization of Genes

Overview

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Chromosome Structure

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The Central Dogma

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Mutations

Mutations are changes in the sequence of DNA. These changes can occur spontaneously or they can be induced by exposure to environmental factors. Mutations ...

Proteins: From Genes to Degradation

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3.1.9-12.B

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Negative and Positive Feedback

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3.1.9-12.C

How DNA Stores Genetic Information

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