Name: how membrane proteins move side to side
Uploaded: 2023-04-30T09:16:22.000Z
Duration: 1 min 24 s
Channel: JoVE

K12 Standards

Alabama Course of Study Science

9-12

Biology

from-molecules-to-organisms-structures-and-processes

From Molecules to Organisms: Structures and Processes

9-12.B.1.4.a

Protein Diffusion in the Membrane

W temperaturach fizjologicznych dwuwarstwa lipidowa działa jak dwuwymiarowy płyn, który umożliwia dyfuzję białek, lipidów i innych składników błony.
Boczna dyfuzja białek to ruch boczny wewnątrz błony.
Macierz zewnątrzkomórkowa może wchodzić w interakcje z domeną zewnątrzkomórkową białka i zakłócać jego ruch, lub wewnątrzkomórkowo, cytoszkielet aktynowy i związane z nim białka transbłonowe mogą tworzyć ogrodzenia, co prowadzi do powstania określonych przedziałów zwanych zagrodami.
Te ogrodzenia cytoszkieletu utrudniają swobodny przepływ białek z jednej zagrody do drugiej. Jednak obrót aktyny może tworzyć tymczasowe luki w ogrodzeniu, które mogą umożliwić białkom przemieszczanie się z jednej zagrody do drugiej.
Szybkość dyfuzji bocznej białek można określić za pomocą odzysku fluorescencji po fotowybielaniu lub FRAP. W tej technice integralne białka błonowe są znakowane za pomocą sond fluorescencyjnych.
Kiedy unieruchomiona komórka jest naświetlana wiązką laserową, sonda fluorescencyjna ulega fotowybielaniu, w wyniku czego powstaje okrągły obszar niefluorescencyjny. Utracona fluorescencja stopniowo się odbudowuje, gdy niebielone białka dyfundują do wybielonego obszaru.

dyfuzja białek w błonie

Białka wykazują dyfuzję rotacyjną i boczną przez błonę. Boczną dyfuzję białek potwierdzono w eksperymencie fuzji komórek, w którym doszło do fuzji komórek mysich i ludzkich, w wyniku czego powstały komórki hybrydowe. Po fuzji komórek ludzkich i mysich specyficzne białka błonowe komórek ludzkich i mysich oznaczono odpowiednio czerwonymi i zielonymi markerami fluorescencyjnymi. Początkowo czerwona i zielona fluorescencja była zlokalizowana na odpowiedniej półkuli komórki. W miarę upływu czasu białka oznaczone czerwonymi i zielono-fluorescencyjnymi markerami zaczęły przesuwać się na boki i całkowicie wymieszały się na całej powierzchni komórki w ciągu 40 minut. Doświadczenie to potwierdziło, że białka błonowe mogą wykazywać dyfuzję boczną. Do określenia szybkości dyfuzji białek błonowych można zastosować technikę odzyskiwania fluorescencji po fotowybielaniu (FRAP). W tej technice docelowe białko jest znakowane przez przeciwciało znakowane fluoroforem, które jest specyficzne dla tego białka. Alternatywnie, do wytworzenia docelowego białka połączonego z białkiem zielonej fluorescencji można również zastosować inżynierię genetyczną. Wiązka laserowa służy do tworzenia niefluorescencyjnego wybielonego obszaru. Jeżeli nastąpi odzysk fluorescencji na poziomie 40%, uważa się, że około 40% białek błonowych ulega dyfuzji bocznej. Prędkość dyfuzji można następnie obliczyć na podstawie czasu wymaganego do odzyskania fluorescencji w wybielonym obszarze, co z kolei można wykorzystać do określenia współczynnika dyfuzji. W zależności od lokalizacji i struktury białka, każde białko ma inny współczynnik dyfuzji. Badania FRAP wykazały, że nie wszystkie białka błonowe są jednakowo mobilne, a szybkość dyfuzji białek błonowych jest mniejsza niż oczekiwana w przypadku czystej dwuwarstwy lipidowej. Szybkość dyfuzji białek przez błonę jest mniejsza niż szybkość dyfuzji lipidów błonowych. Na przykład, aby pokonać 20-mikrometrową długość komórki eukariotycznej, lipidy błonowe potrzebują około 20 sekund, podczas gdy białka błonowe mogą potrzebować do 600-3600 sekund. Oprócz FRAP istnieją inne zaawansowane techniki, takie jak 1) śledzenie pojedynczych cząstek; 2) zastosowanie pęsety optycznej do badania barier błonowych; oraz 3) genetycznie zmodyfikowane białka, aby zobaczyć rolę cytoplazmatycznych i egzoplazmatycznych domen białkowych w bocznej dyfuzji, wykorzystano do zbadania różnych aspektów dyfuzji białek w błonie.

Dyfuzja białek w błonie

Białka wykazują zarówno rotacyjną, jak i boczną dyfuzję przez błonę. Boczna dyfuzja białek została potwierdzona poprzez fuzję komórek ...

Education

JoVE Core

Cell Biology

Biologia komórki

Unit 1

Jednostka 1

Membrane Structure and Components

Struktura i składniki błony

KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS

Kluczowe terminy i pojęcia

how membrane proteins move side to side

Membrane proteins can move across the cell surface by lateral diffusion, and they can also rotate in place. Scientists confirmed lateral movement with a cell fusion experiment. Mouse and human cells were fused to make hybrid cells. The membrane proteins on the two cells were tagged with red and green fluorescent markers. At first, each color stayed on its own side of the fused cell. After 40 minutes, the colors mixed across the whole cell surface, showing that the proteins had moved laterally.

FRAP, or fluorescence recovery after photobleaching, is another way to measure membrane protein diffusion. In this method, the target protein is labeled with a fluorophore-linked antibody that binds only to that protein. A genetically engineered protein fused to green fluorescent protein can also be used. A laser then creates a bleached, non-fluorescent area. If 40% of the fluorescence returns, about 40% of the proteins in that area are considered laterally diffusible.

The time needed for recovery helps scientists calculate the diffusion rate and the diffusion coefficient. Different proteins have different diffusion coefficients because their location and structure are not the same. FRAP studies also showed that membrane proteins move more slowly than expected from the pure lipid bilayer. Their diffusion is slower than membrane lipids. For example, lipids may cross the 20-micrometer length of a eukaryotic cell in about 20 seconds, while membrane proteins may take 600 to 3600 seconds.

Researchers also use other advanced methods to study membrane protein movement. These include single-particle tracking, optical tweezers to study membrane barriers, and genetically modified proteins that help show how cytoplasmic and exoplasmic domains affect lateral diffusion.

How Membrane Proteins Move Side to Side

what are membranes?

Membrane Receptors and Cell Signals

The plasma membrane sets the outer boundary of a cell and helps control how the cell interacts with its environment. It lets some substances enter, keeps others out, and releases some materials in controlled amounts. The membrane also needs to stay flexible so cells such as red and white blood cells can change shape as they move through narrow capillaries. The membrane surface also carries markers that help cells recognize one another. This recognition is important during early development,...

membrane fluidity

How Cell Membranes Stay Flexible

Cell membranes stay flexible because of the fluid mosaic model. The plasma membrane is a mosaic of phospholipids, cholesterol, proteins, and carbohydrates. These parts are separate but loosely attached, so the membrane keeps a fluid character. The membrane is still fairly rigid, but it can flow and self-seal after a very fine needle passes through it. Phospholipid tails also affect membrane fluidity. Saturated fatty acids in phospholipids have straight tails because they are packed with...

fluid mosaic model

Fluid Mosaic Model of the Membrane

The fluid mosaic model explains the structure and function of the plasma membrane. Scientists first identified the plasma membrane in the 1890s, and by 1915 they had identified its main chemical parts: lipids and proteins. Early electron micrographs showed a railroad track pattern, which helped lead to the first widely accepted membrane model in 1935.

membrane lipids

Membrane Lipids in Cells and Tissues

Membrane lipids give biological membranes their structure and help set their properties. In mammalian cells, lipids make up about 50% of the membrane on average. The amount can be much lower in the inner mitochondrial membrane or much higher in the myelin sheath around nerve cells. Several phospholipids are common in mammalian membranes. These include phosphatidylcholine, phosphatidylethanolamine, phosphatidylserine, and sphingomyelin. At physiological pH, phosphatidylserine carries a negative...

asymmetric lipid bilayer

Membrane Lipid Unevenness

Biological membranes have an uneven mix of lipids between the inner and outer layers. This membrane asymmetry gives each side a different chemical makeup and supports different cell functions. Evidence for this uneven layout came from treating an erythrocyte membrane with phospholipase. Phospholipase is an enzyme that breaks lipids into fatty acids and hydrophilic groups. It acted only on the outer layer, while the inner layer stayed intact. The treatment degraded about 80% of total membrane...

membrane asymmetry regulating transporters

membrane-asymmetry-regulating-transporters

Membrane Lipid Flipping and Transport

Membrane lipid flipping and transport help cells keep an uneven, or asymmetric, distribution of phospholipids across the membrane. This balance is controlled by flippase, floppase, and scramblase enzymes, which move lipids between the two membrane leaflets. Flippases move specific phospholipids from the outer leaflet to the inner leaflet. In eukaryotes, these enzymes are type-IV P-type ATPases, also called P4-ATPases. They are membrane pumps that use ATP and contain one transmembrane domain...

membrane carbohydrates

Membrane Sugars and Cell Identity

Membrane carbohydrates help give cells their surface identity and support plasma membrane function. The plasma membrane is a dynamic barrier made of lipids, proteins, and carbohydrates. These sugar chains have unique structural and chemical traits that help the membrane work properly for cell growth and survival. Membrane carbohydrates do not have a hydrophobic region, so they are found only on the outer surface of the cell. Sugar addition, or glycosylation, of proteins occurs in the lumens of...

membrane proteins

Facilitated Transport Across Cell Membranes

Facilitated transport uses membrane proteins to help materials cross the plasma membrane. These integral transmembrane proteins act as channels or carriers. They move selected substances through the membrane more easily than the lipid layer alone would allow. Channel proteins provide a hydrophilic, or water-friendly, path through the membrane. Their core forms a hydrated opening that lets solutes pass between the inside and outside fluids of the cell. This helps polar compounds avoid the...

lipids as anchors

Lipid Anchors in Membrane Proteins

Lipid anchors help attach proteins to the plasma membrane. In eukaryotic cells, the main lipid anchors are prenyl groups, fatty acyl groups, and glycosylphosphatidylinositol, or GPI, groups. Prenyl and fatty acyl groups anchor proteins on the cytosolic side of the membrane. GPI anchors proteins on the extracellular side. Prenylated proteins often have a CaaX motif at the carboxy terminus. In this sequence, C means cysteine, a means any aliphatic amino acid, and X means any other amino acid...

single-pass transmembrane proteins

How Membrane Proteins Span Cell Membranes

Membrane proteins help cells communicate, send signals, stick to other cells, and move molecules across the membrane. Integral membrane proteins are tightly linked to the cell membrane and carry out these jobs. Some integral membrane proteins sit only in one membrane layer. Fatty acid amide hydrolase is one example, and it is found on the cytoplasmic side of the membrane monolayer. Other integral membrane proteins are transmembrane proteins, which span across the membrane. These proteins have...

multi-pass transmembrane proteins and &#946;-barrels

multi-pass-transmembrane-proteins-and-barrels

Membrane-Spanning Helices and β-Barrels

Membrane-spanning proteins can cross the cell membrane more than once. Their transmembrane chain usually folds into either an alpha-helix or a beta-strand. Alpha-helix multi-pass proteins are common, while beta-strand proteins are found mainly in gram-negative bacteria, mitochondria, and chloroplasts. Some multi-pass alpha-helix proteins are G-protein-linked receptors, or GPCRs, and bacteriorhodopsin. GPCRs have seven transmembrane alpha-helices. Each receptor also has its own extracellular...

detergent purification of membrane proteins

detergent-purification-of-membrane-proteins

How Detergents Solubilize Membrane Proteins

Detergents help solubilize membrane proteins so they can be purified from the lipid bilayer. Their hydrophobic region can replace membrane phospholipids and keep integral membrane proteins in solution. A detergent works well only when its monomers reach the critical micelle concentration, or CMC. At that point, the molecules assemble into micelles, which are small clusters of detergent. Above the CMC, free detergent monomers stay in equilibrium with the micelles. The CMC varies with the...

protein diffusion in the membrane

Membrane proteins can move across the cell surface by lateral diffusion, and they can also rotate in place. Scientists confirmed lateral movement with a cell fusion experiment. Mouse and human cells were fused to make hybrid cells. The membrane proteins on the two cells were tagged with red and green fluorescent markers. At first, each color stayed on its own side of the fused cell. After 40 minutes, the colors mixed across the whole cell surface, showing that the proteins had moved laterally. <br...

membrane domains

Lipid Rafts and Sperm Membrane Regions

Membrane domains organize specific lipids and proteins in defined parts of a cell membrane. This arrangement supports cell signaling, adhesion, and other important cellular processes. These domains can vary in size, composition, function, and how long they last. Some membrane domains are built from proteins. The membrane can contain distinct protein groups that carry out a cell’s specific functions. A clear example is the plasma membrane of a human sperm cell, which has different proteins in...

mechanisms of membrane domain formation

How Cell Membranes Form Domains

Cell membranes form domains when lipids and proteins gather into distinct regions. These regions, or membrane domains, are shaped by different physical properties that help some molecules stay together while others move apart. Some domains form through protein-protein interactions. Others depend on specific lipids, such as sphingolipids and sterols. Large proteins, including bacteriorhodopsin, can also cluster and create visible membrane domains. Membrane proteins can be held in place by...

mechanisms of membrane-bending

How Proteins Shape Cell Membranes

Cell membranes can bend into many shapes because they are flexible and made of a fluid mosaic. That bending can be temporary, as in vesicles, or long-lasting, as in microvilli. Cells control the size, place, and time of membrane curvature. Membrane bending can start inside the membrane itself or from proteins attaching to it. Changes in lipid makeup can create curvature, and proteins can help by making the membrane asymmetric or by clustering certain lipids. The shape of integral proteins also...

key terms and concepts

Learn how membrane proteins move laterally in the membrane, how cell fusion and FRAP measure diffusion, and why proteins move slower than lipids.

How Membrane Proteins Move Side to Side | JoVE K12

cell biology

JoVE Core Cell Biology illustrates complex cellular processes in easy-to-understand yet comprehensive animated video lessons. This collection focuses on the essential components and functions of cells, including organelles and membranes, cellular transport, and cell energetics. It is complemented by scientist-in-action videos that demonstrate the application of cell biology in real-world research experiments.

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9-12.B.1.1

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9-12.B.1.2

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9-12.B.1.2.a

How Membrane Proteins Move Side to Side

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