Name: organic molecules in everyday chemistry
Uploaded: 2020-09-03T13:38:26.000Z
Duration: 3 min 2 s
Channel: JoVE

K12 Standards

north-carolina-k-12-science-standard-course-of-study

NC K-12 Science Standard Course of Study

9-12

Chemistry

Matter and its Interactions

PS.Chm.3.3

Organic Compounds

Os compostos químicos constituídos principalmente por átomos de carbono ligados a átomos de hidrogênio, oxigênio, nitrogênio ou enxofre são denominados de compostos orgânicos. Os compostos orgânicos formam uma vasta variedade de moléculas desde blocos fundamentais de construção de vida como o ADN ou paredes de células vegetais até materiais libertadores de energia como os combustíveis. São normalmente facilmente decompostos.Os átomos de carbono constituem a espinha dorsal de cada composto orgânico, que podem assumir estruturas diversas com disposições em forma de anéis, ramificações e em cadeia reta devido à versatilidade do carbono em formar quatro ligações, quer sejam ligações simples, duplas ou triplas. Os compostos orgânicos podem ser ou hidrocarbonetos ou hidrocarbonetos funcionalizados. Os hidrocarbonetos são constituídos inteiramente por átomos de carbono e hidrogênio.Os alcanos são hidrocarbonetos que contêm ligações únicas. Os alcenos contêm uma ou mais ligações duplas, enquanto os alcinos contêm uma ou mais ligações triplas. A nomenclatura dos hidrocarbonetos segue um padrão em que o nome de base é mencionado primeiro utilizando um prefixo determinado pelo número de átomos de carbono.o nome termina com o sufixo ano, eno ou ino dependendo da presença de ligações simples, duplas ou triplas, respectivamente. Por exemplo, a ligação simples que contém alcano com três átomos de carbono é o propano. A ligação dupla que contém alcano com três átomos de carbono é o propeno, enquanto uma ligação tripla que contém alcino com três átomos de carbono é o propino.Os hidrocarbonetos que têm um ou mais dos seus átomos de hidrogênio substituídos por um grupo específico de átomos ou grupos funcionais são denominados de hidrocarbonetos funcionalizados. A fórmula geral dos hidrocarbonetos funcionalizados designa a porção de hidrocarboneto através da letra R'e o grupo funcional específico. Os grupos funcionais podem ser de vários tipos e terem propriedades físicas e químicas específicas.Todos os compostos orgânicos que tenham um grupo funcional comum situam-se na mesma família de hidrocarbonetos, apresentam propriedades semelhantes e seguem nomenclaturas semelhantes. Por exemplo, todos os compostos orgânicos que tenho um grupo funcional OH são denominados de álcoois. A nomenclatura menciona o nome de base do alcano principal terminado com o sufixo ol, específico para o grupo funcional do álcool.Assim, o propano com um grupo funcional OH é denominado de propanol. Em contrapartida, todos os compostos orgânicos que transportam grupos funcionais carboxílicos são denominados de ácidos carboxílicos. A nomenclatura indica o nome de base do alcano principal terminado com o sufixo ácido óico, exclusivo do grupo funcional carboxil.Assim, o propano com um grupo funcional carboxil é denominado de ácido propanoico.

compostos orgânicos

Todos os seres vivos são formados principalmente por compostos de carbono chamados compostos orgânicos. A categoria dos compostos orgânicos inclui compostos naturais e sintéticos que contêm carbono. Embora uma definição única e precisa ainda tenha de ser identificada pela comunidade química, a maioria concorda que uma característica que define as moléculas orgânicas é a presença de carbono como elemento principal, ligado a hidrogénio e a outros átomos de carbono. No entanto, alguns compostos que contêm carbono, tais como carbonatos, cianetos, e óxidos simples (CO e CO2), não são classificados como compostos orgânicos. 

Os compostos orgânicos são componentes chave de plásticos, sabões, perfumes, edulcorantes, tecidos, produtos farmacêuticos, e muitas outras substâncias usadas diariamente. Os compostos orgânicos incluem compostos provenientes de organismos vivos e os sintetizados por químicos. A existência de uma grande variedade de moléculas orgânicas é uma consequência da capacidade dos átomos de carbono de formarem até quatro ligações fortes com outros átomos de carbono, resultando em cadeias e anéis de vários tamanhos, formas, e complexidades diferentes.

<h4>Hidrocarbonetos</h4>

Os compostos orgânicos mais simples contêm apenas os elementos carbono e hidrogénio e são chamados hidrocarbonetos. Os hidrocarbonetos podem diferir nos tipos de ligações carbono-carbono presentes nas suas moléculas. Aqueles que contêm apenas ligações simples são chamados alcanos, enquanto que aqueles que contêm ligações duplas ou triplas são alcenos e alcinos, respectivamente. Embora todos os hidrocarbonetos sejam compostos por apenas dois tipos de átomos (carbono e hidrogénio), existe uma grande variedade de hidrocarbonetos, porque podem consistir em vários comprimentos de cadeias, cadeias ramificadas, e anéis de átomos de carbono, ou combinações destas estruturas.

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<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">Butano (C4H10)</td>
<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">Isobutano (C4H10)</td>
<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">Ciclobutano (C4H8)</td>
</tr>
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</table>

 

Os hidrocarbonetos são usados diariamente, principalmente como combustíveis, como o gás natural, acetileno, propano, butano, e os principais componentes da gasolina, combustível diesel e óleo de aquecimento. Os alcanos, ou hidrocarbonetos saturados, contêm apenas ligações covalentes entre os seus átomos de carbono. Propriedades como o ponto de fusão e o ponto de ebulição geralmente mudam previsivelmente, à medida que o número de átomos de carbono e hidrogénio nas moléculas muda. 

Para designar um alcano simples, identifica-se primeiro o nome de base, dependendo do número de átomos de carbono na cadeia (met = 1, et = 2, prop = 3, but = 4, pent = 5, hex = 6, hept = 7, oct = 8, non = 9, and dec = 10). O nome de base é seguido de um sufixo — determinado caso o hidrocarboneto seja um alcano (-ano), alceno (-eno) ou alcino (-ino). Por exemplo, um alcano de dois carbonos é chamado de etano; um alcano de três carbonos é chamado de propano; e um alcano de quatro carbonos é chamado de butano. Cadeias mais longas são designadas da seguinte forma: pentano (cadeia de 5 carbonos), hexano (6), heptano (7), octano (8), nonano (9), e decano (10). 

Alcenos e alcinos são hidrocarbonetos não saturados contendo ligações duplas e ligações triplas, respectivamente, entre pelo menos dois átomos de carbono. A sua nomenclatura segue os mesmos passos que a dos alcanos: Nome de base + sufixo. Por exemplo, uma cadeia de alceno de dois carbonos é chamada de eteno, e um alcino de dois carbonos é chamado de etino; um alceno de três carbonos é chamado propeno, e um alcino de três carbono é chamado propino, e assim por diante. 

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<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">Etano (C2H6)</td>
<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">Eteno (C2H4) </td>
<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">Etino (C2H2)</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>

<h4>Hidrocarbonetos Funcionalizados</h4>

A incorporação de um grupo funcional em moléculas contendo carbono e hidrogénio leva a novas famílias de compostos chamados hidrocarbonetos funcionalizados. O grupo funcional é um átomo característico ou grupo de átomos que determina principalmente as propriedades dos derivados de hidrocarbonetos. 

Um tipo de grupo funcional é o grupo –OH. Os compostos que têm um grupo funcional –OH são álcoois. O nome do álcool provém do hidrocarboneto do qual foi derivado. Por convenção, a porção de hidrocarbonetos da molécula é designada como 'R'; portanto, a fórmula geral de um álcool é R–OH. O ‘–o’ final no nome do hidrocarboneto é substituído por ‘–ol’. No caso de um álcool ramificado, o átomo de carbono ao qual o grupo –OH é ligado é indicado por um número colocado antes do nome. Outros grupos funcionais comuns estão listados abaixo. Um grupo de compostos contendo o mesmo grupo funcional forma uma família.

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<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">Família</td>
<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">Grupo funcional</td>
<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">Exemplo</td>
<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">Fórmula</td>
<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">Nome</td>
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<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">Álcoois</td>
<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;"><img alt="Eq3" src="https://www.jove.com/files/core/CDNSource/lessons/1290/1290_Image 3.svg" style="height: 15px;" /></td>
<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;"><img alt="Eq4" src="https://www.jove.com/files/core/CDNSource/lessons/1290/1290_Image 4.svg" style="height: 75px;" /></td>
<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">C3H8O</td>
<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">Propanol</td>
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<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">Éteres</td>
<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;"><img alt="Eq5" src="https://www.jove.com/files/core/CDNSource/lessons/1290/1290_Image 5.svg" style="height: 15px;" /></td>
<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;"><img alt="Eq6" src="https://www.jove.com/files/core/CDNSource/lessons/1290/1290_Image 6.svg" style="height: 75px;" /></td>
<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">C2H6O</td>
<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">Dimetil éter</td>
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<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">Aldeídos</td>
<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;"><img alt="Eq7" src="https://www.jove.com/files/core/CDNSource/lessons/1290/1290_image 7.svg" style="height: 45px;" /></td>
<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;"><img alt="Eq8" src="https://www.jove.com/files/core/CDNSource/lessons/1290/1290_Image 8.svg" style="height: 75px;" /></td>
<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">C3H6O</td>
<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">Propanal</td>
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<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">Cetonas</td>
<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;"><img alt="Eq9" src="https://www.jove.com/files/core/CDNSource/lessons/1290/1290_Image 9.svg" style="height: 45px;" /></td>
<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;"><img alt="Eq10" src="https://www.jove.com/files/core/CDNSource/lessons/1290/1290_Image 10.svg" style="height: 75px;" /></td>
<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">C3H6O</td>
<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">Propanona (acetona)</td>
</tr>
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<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">Ácidos carboxílicos</td>
<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;"><img alt="Eq11" src="https://www.jove.com/files/core/CDNSource/lessons/1290/1290_Image 11.svg" style="height: 45px;" /></td>
<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;"><img alt="Eq12" src="https://www.jove.com/files/core/CDNSource/lessons/1290/1290_Image 12.svg" style="height: 75px;" /></td>
<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">C3H6O2</td>
<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">Ácido propanóico</td>
</tr>
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<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">Ésteres</td>
<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;"><img alt="Eq13" src="https://www.jove.com/files/core/CDNSource/lessons/1290/1290_Image 13.svg" style="height: 45px;" /></td>
<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;"><img alt="Eq14" src="https://www.jove.com/files/core/CDNSource/lessons/1290/1290_Image 14.svg" style="height: 75px;" /></td>
<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">C4H8O2</td>
<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">Acetato de etilo</td>
</tr>
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<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">Aminas</td>
<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;"><img alt="Eq15" src="https://www.jove.com/files/core/CDNSource/lessons/1290/1290_Image 15.svg" style="height: 17px;" /></td>
<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;"><img alt="Eq16" src="https://www.jove.com/files/core/CDNSource/lessons/1290/1290_Image 16.svg" style="height: 75px;" /></td>
<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">C3H9N</td>
<td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">Propilamina</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>

 

Os éteres são compostos que contêm o grupo funcional –O–, com a fórmula geral R–O–R’. 

Outra classe de moléculas orgânicas contém um átomo de carbono ligado a um átomo de oxigénio por uma ligação dupla, geralmente chamado de grupo carbonilo. O carbono do grupo carbonilo pode ligar-se a dois outros substitutos levando a várias subfamílias (aldeídos, cetonas, ácidos carboxílicos, e ésteres). 

Grupos funcionais relacionados com o grupo carbonilo incluem o grupo –CHO de um aldeído, o grupo –CO– de uma cetona, o grupo –CO2H de um ácido carboxílico, e o grupo –CO2R de um éster. O grupo carbonilo, uma ligação dupla de carbono-oxigénio, é a estrutura principal nestas classes de moléculas orgânicas. Os aldeídos contêm pelo menos um átomo de hidrogénio ligado ao átomo de carbono carbonilo, as cetonas contêm dois grupos de carbono ligados ao átomo de carbono carbonilo, os ácidos carboxílicos contêm um grupo hidroxilo ligado ao átomo de carbono carbonilo, e os ésteres contêm um átomo de oxigénio ligado a outro grupo de carbono ligado ao átomo de carbono carbonilo. Todos estes compostos contêm átomos de carbono oxidados em relação ao átomo de carbono de um grupo de álcool.

A adição de azoto a um quadro orgânico leva a duas famílias de moléculas, nomeadamente aminas e amidas. Os compostos que contêm um átomo de azoto ligado a um quadro de hidrocarbonetos são classificados como aminas. Os compostos que têm um átomo de azoto ligado a um lado de um grupo carbonilo são classificados como amidas. As aminas são um grupo funcional básico. Aminas e ácidos carboxílicos podem combinar-se em uma reação de condensação para formar amidas.

Este texto é adaptado de <a href="https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-2e/pages/20-introduction">Openstax, Chemistry 2e, Section 20: Introduction, Openstax, Chemistry 2e, Section 20.1: Hydrocarbons, Openstax, Chemistry 2e, Section 20.2: Alcohols and Ethers, Openstax, Chemistry 2e, Section 20.2: Aldehydes, Ketones, Carboxylic Acids, and Esters,</a> e <a href="https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-2e/pages/20-4-amines-and-amides">Openstax, Chemistry 2e, Section 20.2: Amines and Amides</a>.

Compostos Orgânicos

Todos os seres vivos são formados principalmente de compostos de carbono chamados compostos orgânicos. A categoria de compostos orgânicos inclui compostos naturais e sintéticos ...

Education

JoVE Core

Química

Molecules, Compounds, and Chemical Equations

Moléculas, Compostos e Equações Químicas

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KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS

TERMOS-CHAVE E CONCEITOS

organic molecules in everyday chemistry

Organic molecules are carbon-based compounds found in living things and in many everyday products. Most organic compounds have carbon as the main element, bonded to hydrogen and other carbon atoms. Some carbon-containing substances, such as carbonates, cyanides, and simple oxides like CO and CO2, are not classified as organic.

Carbon can form up to four strong bonds, which helps explain why organic compounds can make chains and rings of many sizes and shapes. These molecules appear in plastics, soaps, perfumes, sweeteners, fabrics, pharmaceuticals, and many other materials used daily. Organic compounds may come from living organisms, or they may be made by chemists.

The simplest organic compounds are hydrocarbons, which contain only carbon and hydrogen. Hydrocarbons can have only single bonds, only double bonds, or only triple bonds. Those with single bonds are called alkanes, while those with double or triple bonds are called alkenes and alkynes.

Hydrocarbons vary because their carbon atoms can form straight chains, branched chains, rings, or combinations of these structures. Examples include butane, isobutane, and cyclobutane. Hydrocarbons are widely used as fuels, including natural gas, acetylene, propane, butane, and the main components of gasoline, diesel fuel, and heating oil.

Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons because they contain only single covalent bonds between carbon atoms. Their melting point and boiling point usually change in a regular way as the number of carbon and hydrogen atoms changes. Simple alkane names use a prefix based on the number of carbon atoms, such as meth, eth, prop, but, pent, hex, hept, oct, non, and dec, followed by the ending -ane.

This naming pattern also helps identify alkenes and alkynes. The suffix changes to -ene for alkenes and -yne for alkynes. A two-carbon alkane is ethane, a three-carbon alkane is propane, and a four-carbon alkane is butane. The matching alkene and alkyne names are ethene and ethyne, then propene and propyne.

Adding a functional group to a hydrocarbon creates a functionalized hydrocarbon. A functional group is a specific atom or group of atoms that largely controls the properties of the compound. One common example is the -OH group, which makes a molecule an alcohol. Alcohol names come from the hydrocarbon name, with the final -e changed to -ol, and a branched alcohol may need a number to show where the -OH group is attached.

Other families of functionalized hydrocarbons include ethers, aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids, esters, amines, and amides. Ethers contain an -O- group and have the general formula R-O-R'. Carbonyl compounds contain a carbon-oxygen double bond. In aldehydes, the carbonyl carbon has at least one hydrogen attached. In ketones, it has two carbon groups attached. In carboxylic acids, a hydroxyl group is attached to the carbonyl carbon. In esters, an oxygen atom is attached to another carbon group connected to the carbonyl carbon.

These carbonyl families all have carbon atoms that are more oxidized than the carbon atom in an alcohol group. Nitrogen can also be part of organic molecules. Compounds with nitrogen in a hydrocarbon framework are called amines, and compounds with nitrogen on one side of a carbonyl group are called amides. Amines are basic, and amines can react with carboxylic acids in a condensation reaction to form amides.

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Reading Chemical Equations and Balancing Them

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JoVE Core - Química dá vida a conceitos gerais de química usando vídeos de animação fáceis de entender. Além disso, nos vídeos Cientistas em ação, demonstramos experimentos de pesquisa clássicos e originais realizados atualmente por cientistas em laboratórios em todo o mundo.

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Alpha (&#945;) decay is the ...

Nuclear Stability

Protons and neutrons, collectively called nucleons, are packed together tightly in a nucleus. With a radius of about 10&#8722;15 meters, a nucleus is ...

Nuclear Binding Energy

The difference between the calculated and experimentally measured masses is known as the mass defect of the atom. In the case of helium-4, the mass defect ...

Radioactive Decay and Radiometric Dating

Radioactivity is a spontaneous disintegration of an unstable nuclide and is a random process, as all the nuclei in the sample do not decay simultaneously. ...

Nuclear Fission

Many heavier elements with smaller binding energies per nucleon can decompose into more stable elements that have intermediate mass numbers and larger ...

Nuclear Power

Controlled nuclear fission reactions are used to generate electricity. Any nuclear reactor that produces power via the fission of uranium or plutonium by ...

Nuclear Fusion

The process of converting very light nuclei into heavier nuclei is also accompanied by the conversion of mass into large amounts of energy, a process ...

Nuclear Transmutation

Nuclear transmutation is the conversion of one nuclide into another. It can occur by the radioactive decay of a nucleus, or the reaction of a nucleus with ...

Use models to compare nuclear reactions including alpha decay, beta decay and gamma decay; nuclear fusion and nuclear fission.

PS.Chm.1.2

Atomic Orbitals

An atomic orbital represents the three-dimensional regions in an atom where an electron has the highest probability to reside. The radial distribution ...

The Pauli Exclusion Principle

The arrangement of electrons in the orbitals of an atom is called its electron configuration. We describe an electron configuration with a symbol that ...

The Energies of Atomic Orbitals

In an atom, the negatively charged electrons are attracted to the positively charged nucleus. In a multielectron atom, electron-electron repulsions are ...

The Aufbau Principle and Hund's Rule

To determine the electron configuration for any particular atom, we can build the structures in the order of atomic numbers. Beginning with hydrogen, and ...

electron-configuration-of-multielectron-atoms

Electron Configuration of Multielectron Atoms

The alkali metal sodium (atomic number 11) has one more electron than the neon atom. This electron must go into the lowest-energy subshell available, the ...

Use models to explain how electrons are distributed in atoms.

PS.Chm.1.3

Periodic Classification of the Elements

The periodic table arranges atoms based on increasing atomic number so that elements with the same chemical properties recur periodically. When their ...

The Periodic Table

As early chemists discovered more elements, they realized that various elements could be grouped by their similar chemical behaviors. One such grouping ...

Atomic Mass

Atoms &mdash; and the protons, neutrons, and electrons that compose them &mdash; are extremely small. For example, a carbon atom weighs less than 2 ...

Molar Mass

The identity of a substance is defined not only by the types of atoms or ions it contains but by the quantity of each type of atom or ion. For example, ...

Use the Periodic Table as a model to predict the relative properties of elements based on the pattern of valence electrons in the outermost energy levels of atoms.

PS.Chm.2.1

atomic-radii-and-effective-nuclear-charge

Atomic Radii and Effective Nuclear Charge

The elements in groups of the periodic table exhibit similar chemical behavior. This similarity occurs because the members of a group have the same number ...

Ionic Radii

Ionic radius is the measure used to describe the size of an ion. A cation always has fewer electrons and the same number of protons as the parent atom; it ...

Ionization Energy

The amount of energy required to remove the most loosely bound electron from a gaseous atom in its ground state is called its first ionization energy ...

Electron Affinity

The electron affinity (EA) is the energy change for adding an electron to a gaseous atom to form an anion (negative ion).



This process can be either ...

Construct an explanation to infer the atomic size, reactivity, electronegativity, and ionization energy of an element based on its position in the Periodic Table.

PS.Chm.2.2

Types of Chemical Bonds

Chemical bonding theories were pioneered by American chemist Gilbert&#xA0;N. Lewis. He developed a model called the Lewis model to explain the type and ...

Lewis Symbols and the Octet Rule

Chemical bonds are complex interactions between two or more atoms or ions, which reduce the potential energy of the molecule. Gilbert N. Lewis developed a ...

Ionic Bonding and Electron Transfer

Ions are atoms or molecules bearing an electrical charge. A cation (a positive ion) forms when a neutral atom loses one or more electrons from its valence ...

The Born-Haber Cycle

Lattice Energy&#xA0;

An ionic compound is stable because of the electrostatic attraction between its positive and negative ions. The lattice energy of a ...

trends-in-lattice-energy-ion-size-and-charge

Trends in Lattice Energy: Ion Size and Charge

An ionic compound is stable because of the electrostatic attraction between its positive and negative ions. The lattice energy of a compound is a measure ...

Covalent Bonding and Lewis Structures

Compared to ionic bonds, which results from the transfer of electrons between metallic and nonmetallic atoms, covalent bonds result from the mutual ...

Electronegativity

Whether a bond is nonpolar or polar covalent is determined by a property of the bonding atoms called electronegativity.&#xA0;

Electronegativity values of ...

bond-polarity-dipole-moment-and-percent-ionic-character

Bond Polarity, Dipole Moment, and Percent Ionic Character

Bond Polarity

The absolute value of the difference in electronegativity (&Delta;EN) of two bonded atoms provides a rough measure of the polarity to be ...

lewis-structures-of-molecular-compounds-and-polyatomic-ions

Lewis Structures of Molecular Compounds and Polyatomic Ions

To draw Lewis structures for complicated molecules and molecular ions, it is helpful to follow a step-by-step procedure as outlined:


	Determine the ...

Resonance

The Lewis structure of a nitrite anion (NO2&minus;) may actually be drawn in two different ways, distinguished by the locations of the N-O and N=O ...

Formal Charges

In some cases, there are seemingly more than one valid Lewis structures for molecules and polyatomic ions. The concept of formal charges can be used to ...

Exceptions to the Octet Rule

Many covalent molecules have central atoms that do not have eight electrons in their Lewis structures. These molecules fall into three categories:


	...

Bond Energies and Bond Lengths

Stable molecules exist because covalent bonds hold the atoms together. The strength of a covalent bond is measured by the energy required to break it, ...

Analyze and interpret data to explain the mechanisms and properties of the two main types of intramolecular (ionic and covalent) bonds.

PS.Chm.3.1

molecular-comparison-of-gases-liquids-and-solids

Molecular Comparison of Gases, Liquids, and Solids

Particles in a solid are tightly packed together (fixed shape) and often arranged in a regular pattern; in a liquid, they are close together with no ...

Intermolecular vs Intramolecular Forces

Intermolecular forces (IMF) are electrostatic attractions arising from charge-charge interactions between molecules. The strength of the intermolecular ...

Intermolecular Forces

Atoms and molecules interact through bonds (or forces): intramolecular and intermolecular. The forces are electrostatic as they arise from interactions ...

comparing-intermolecular-forces-melting-point-boiling-point

Comparing Intermolecular Forces: Melting Point, Boiling Point, and Miscibility

Intermolecular forces are attractive forces that exist between molecules. They dictate several bulk properties, such as melting points, boiling points, ...

surface-tension-capillary-action-and-viscosity

Surface Tension, Capillary Action, and Viscosity

Surface Tension
The various IMFs between identical molecules of a substance are examples of cohesive forces. The molecules within a liquid are surrounded ...

Hydrogen Bonds

Hydrogen BondsHydrogen bonds are weak attractions between atoms that have formed other chemical bonds. One of these atoms is electronegative, like oxygen, ...

Van der Waals Interactions

Atoms and molecules interact with each other through intermolecular forces. These electrostatic forces arise from attractive or repulsive interactions ...

Construct an explanation to summarize the influences intermolecular forces have on the properties of chemical compounds.

PS.Chm.3.2

Molecules and Compounds

Atoms and Molecules

Everything in the universe is made up of matter, and matter is composed of a combination of elements. An atom is the smallest unit of ...

Chemical Formulas

A chemical formula presents information about the proportions of atoms constituting a particular chemical compound or molecule, mainly using symbols of ...

Molecular Models

Physical models representing molecular architectures of chemical compounds play essential roles in understanding chemistry. The use of molecular models ...

Classification of Elements and Compounds

Pure substances consist of only one type of matter. A pure substance can be an element or a compound. An element consists of only one type of atom, while ...

ionic-compounds-formulas-and-nomenclature

Ionic Compounds: Formulas and Nomenclature

An element composed of atoms that readily lose electrons (a metal) can react with an element composed of atoms that readily gain electrons (a nonmetal) to ...

molecular-compounds-formulas-and-nomenclature

Molecular Compounds: Formulas and Nomenclature

Molecular compounds or covalent compounds result when atoms share electrons to form covalent bonds. Since there is no electron transfer, molecular ...

All living things are formed mostly of carbon compounds called organic compounds. The category of organic compounds includes both natural and synthetic ...

Use models to predict chemical names and formulas including ionic (binary & ternary), acidic, and binary covalent compounds.

Analyze the structure of atoms and isotopes.

Organic Molecules in Everyday Chemistry

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