Name: cytoplasm and the cell’s internal support
Uploaded: 2023-04-30T10:29:33.000Z
Duration: 1 min 24 s
Channel: JoVE

K12 Standards

north-carolina-k-12-science-standard-course-of-study

North Carolina K-12 Science Standard Course of Study

9-12

Biology

from-molecules-to-organisms-structures-and-processes

From Molecules to Organisms- Structures and Processes

LS.Bio.1.5

Cytoplasm

В эукариотических клетках цитоплазма представляет собой область между плазматической мембраной и ядерной оболочкой.
Поскольку у прокариотических клеток отсутствует ядро, цитоплазма относится ко всему, что заключено внутри плазматической мембраны.
В обоих типах клеток цитоплазматическое пространство заполнено гелеобразной матрицей, называемой цитозолем.
Цитозоль представляет собой водный раствор, содержащий множество растворимых ионов, малых молекул и макромолекул.
Цитоплазма эукариотических клеток также включает в себя многочисленные мембраносвязанные органеллы, выполняющие специализированные клеточные функции, такие как митохондрии, эндоплазматический ретикулум и аппарат Гольджи.
Каркас из белковых волокон, присутствующих в цитоплазме – цитоскелете, придает клетке форму и структуру. Он также способствует внутриклеточному транспорту и подвижности клеток.
Кроме того, в цитоплазме также происходят многие неорганелльные клеточные функции, такие как синтез белка. Водная природа цитоплазмы способствует сворачиванию белка, отталкивая гидрофобные побочные группы аминокислот в белковое ядро.
Некоторые клетки также хранят нерастворимые продукты метаболизма, такие как гликоген, в своей цитоплазме в виде включений.

Цитоплазма

Цитоплазма состоит из органелл и каркаса из белка, называемого цитоскелетом, суспендированных в водном растворе, цитозоле. Цитозоль представляет собой систему, состоящую из воды, ионов, солей и различных органических молекул. Сворачивание и неправильное сворачивание белка Цитоплазма является местом проведения нескольких клеточных процессов, включая синтез и сворачивание белка. Водная природа цитозоля способствует сворачиванию белка, так что боковые цепи гидрофобных аминокислот скрыты в ядре белка, а гидрофильные аминокислоты обращены к цитозолю. Однако клеточные стрессы, такие как старение и изменения pH, температуры или осмолярности, могут вызвать неправильное сворачивание белка. Неправильно свернутые белки могут накапливаться в цитоплазме, образуя нерастворимые белковые агрегаты. Такие агрегаты участвуют в нейродегенеративных заболеваниях, таких как болезнь Альцгеймера и Паркинсона. Состав и функции цитоскелета Цитоскелет эукариот состоит из трех типов нитевидных белков — микротрубочек, микрофиламентов и промежуточных филаментов. Микротрубочки, самый крупный тип филаментов, состоят из белка тубулина. Это динамические структуры, которые могут расти или сокращаться за счет добавления или удаления молекул тубулина с концов их нитей. Они обеспечивают структурную стабильность клетки и действуют как пути для транспортировки белков, везикул и определенных органелл внутри клетки. Кроме того, микротрубочки играют решающую роль в делении клеток, обеспечивая каркас, который направляет хромосомы к противоположным концам клетки. Микрофиламенты, или актиновые нити, представляют собой более мелкие филаменты цитоскелета, состоящие из белка, называемого актином. Белки актина могут быстро собираться и разбираться, образуя филаменты (нити). Поэтому они обеспечивают подвижность одноклеточных организмов, таких как амебы, или миграцию лейкоцитов к местам инфекции. В клетках скелетных мышц актиновые филаменты скользят по филаментам миозина, обеспечивая сокращение мышц. Промежуточные филаменты не так динамичны, как микротрубочки или актиновые филаменты. Однако, как и два других типа филаментов, они также обеспечивают структурную поддержку клетки. Промежуточные филаменты состоят из разных типов белков в зависимости от конкретного типа клеток. Например, промежуточные филаменты волос и ногтей содержат кератин, тогда как в мышечных клетках они состоят из десмина.

Цитоплазма состоит из органелл и каркаса белковых каркасов, называемых цитоскелетами, суспензированных в водном растворе, цитозоле. Тем...

Education

JoVE Core

Cell Biology

Клеточная биология

Unit 1

Раздел 1

Cells, Genomes, and Evolution

Клетки, геномы и эволюция

KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS

ОСНОВНЫЕ ТЕРМИНЫ И ПОНЯТИЯ

cytoplasm and the cell’s internal support

The cytoplasm is the cell’s internal space that holds organelles and the cytoskeleton. It is suspended in the cytosol, an aqueous fluid made of water, ions, salts, and many organic molecules. This fluid helps keep the cell organized and supports many cellular activities.

The cytoplasm is also where protein synthesis and protein folding take place. The watery cytosol helps proteins fold correctly. In a folded protein, hydrophobic amino acid side chains tend to stay buried in the core, while hydrophilic amino acids face the cytosol.

Cell stress can disrupt this process. Changes in pH, temperature, osmolarity, or aging can cause proteins to misfold. These misfolded proteins may collect in the cytoplasm and form insoluble aggregates. Such aggregates are linked to neurodegenerative disorders like Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s disease.

The cytoskeleton is the protein framework inside the cytoplasm. It includes three filament types: microtubules, microfilaments, and intermediate filaments. Microtubules are the largest and are built from tubulin. They can grow or shrink by adding or removing tubulin at their ends. They help give the cell structural stability and serve as tracks for moving proteins, vesicles, and some organelles. They also help guide chromosomes to opposite ends of the cell during cell division.

Microfilaments, also called actin filaments, are smaller and are made of actin. They can assemble and disassemble quickly. This rapid change helps amoeba move and helps white blood cells migrate to infection sites. In skeletal muscle cells, actin filaments slide along myosin filaments to drive muscle contraction.

Intermediate filaments are less dynamic than microtubules or actin filaments, but they still provide support. They are made of different proteins depending on the cell type. In hair and nails, intermediate filaments contain keratin. In muscle cells, they are made of desmins.

Cytoplasm and the Cell’s Internal Support

what are cells?

Cells as the Building Blocks of Life

Cells are the basic building blocks of life. A bacterium can be a single cell, while a human is made of trillions of cells. Even with this range, cells share key features that support life. A living cell has a plasma membrane. This is a bilayer of lipids that separates the cytoplasm inside the cell from the outside environment. A cell also carries genetic information in the form of DNA. In prokaryotic cells, DNA is found in a region called the nucleoid. In eukaryotic cells, DNA is enclosed...

the tree of life - bacteria, archaea, and eukaryotes

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Three Domains on the Tree of Life

The tree of life shows how living things are grouped into three domains: Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukaryotes. This classification helps explain the major branches of life and how they are related. Bacteria and Archaea are both single-celled organisms, but they are not the same. Eukaryotes include organisms with more complex cells, such as plants, animals, and fungi. Together, these three domains give a broad picture of life on Earth. Understanding the tree of life helps students compare cell...

prokaryotic cells

How Prokaryotes Survive Without a Nucleus

Prokaryotes are small unicellular organisms that live without a nucleus. They include the domains Archaea and Bacteria. Bacteria include common microbes such as Salmonella and E. coli, while Archaea include extremophiles that live in harsh places like volcanic springs. Prokaryotic cells still share several basic features with eukaryotic cells. They have a plasma membrane, cytoplasm, ribosomes, and genetic material in the form of single, circular DNA. Their cell parts float freely in the...

eukaryotic compartmentalization

How Organelles Keep Cells Working

Eukaryotic cells keep their organelles separate so each part can do a specific job. Organelles such as the nucleus and mitochondria are surrounded by membranes. These membranes are selectively permeable, which means they control what enters and leaves. That control creates small internal environments with conditions suited to each organelle. These controlled spaces help organelles work more efficiently. In animal cells, lysosomes keep an acidic environment that helps their enzymes digest...

eukaryotic evolution

How Eukaryotic Cells Became Complex

Eukaryotic cells became complex through a debated evolutionary path that likely involved endosymbiosis. The most accepted model is the endosymbiont theory, which explains how organelles such as mitochondria and chloroplasts may have entered an ancestral cell. Other ideas include the nucleus-first hypothesis, the mitochondria-first hypothesis, and the eukaryote-first hypothesis. The nucleus-first hypothesis says an ancestral prokaryote first formed a membrane around its DNA, creating the...

animal and plant cell structure

Plant vs Animal Cell Division and Specialization

Plant and animal cells differ in how they divide, organize into tissues, and specialize for different jobs. Both cell types divide by mitosis in non-gametic cells and by meiosis in gametic cells, but the details are not the same. These differences help explain how each cell type supports growth and reproduction. During cell division, animal cells use centrosomes to organize spindle fibers and separate chromosomes. Plant cells do not have centrosomes. Instead, they use a microtubule-organizing...

cytoplasm

The cytoplasm is the cell’s internal space that holds organelles and the cytoskeleton. It is suspended in the cytosol, an aqueous fluid made of water, ions, salts, and many organic molecules. This fluid helps keep the cell organized and supports many cellular activities. The cytoplasm is also where protein synthesis and protein folding take place. The watery cytosol helps proteins fold correctly. In a folded protein, hydrophobic amino acid side chains tend to stay buried in the core, while...

the nucleus

Nuclear DNA, Chromatin, and Nucleoli

The nucleus is a membrane-bound organelle that stores chromosomal DNA and helps control what proteins a eukaryotic cell makes. It acts as the cell’s control center. DNA in mitochondria and chloroplasts is different because it mainly supports functions specific to those organelles. Inside the nucleus, DNA is wrapped around proteins called histones. This DNA-protein complex is called chromatin. During interphase, when the cell is not dividing, chromatin stays loosely arranged so the DNA is easy...

the dna helix

How DNA Structure Was Discovered

DNA is the genetic material that passes traits from one generation to the next in organisms and most viruses. It is made of two strands of nucleotides that twist into a spring-like double helix. The shape is not perfectly even. It also has repeating grooves called the major groove and the minor groove. The major groove forms where the sugar-phosphate backbones are farther apart. This wider space gives DNA-binding proteins, including transcription factors, better access to the bases. The minor...

the central dogma

DNA to Protein: RNA’s Role

DNA to protein flow depends on RNA as the link between genetic information and the amino acids that build proteins. Early scientists knew that DNA stores the information for cell functions and that proteins carry out most of those functions. For a long time, they did not know how the code in DNA became a working protein. At first, many people thought one gene was changed directly into its protein. Two findings in eukaryotic cells challenged that idea. Protein production does not happen in the...

mutations

Mutations in DNA and Inherited Disease

Mutations are changes in the DNA sequence. They can happen on their own during DNA copying, or they can be caused by environmental factors. Scientists describe mutations in several ways, including whether they change the amino acid sequence of a protein, how much DNA they affect, and whether they occur in somatic cells or germline cells. Some mutations are point mutations. A point mutation changes a single nucleotide in DNA. Other mutations are chromosomal alterations, which change the number...

genome size and the evolution of new genes

genome-size-and-the-evolution-of-new-genes

Genome Size and Gene Evolution

Genome size and gene evolution are linked through changes in DNA sequence and genome structure. Some genes can arise from parts of the genome that were not coding before, while others come from changes to existing genes. These shifts help explain how new genetic material can appear over time. A genome is the full set of DNA in an organism. Its size can change as DNA is added, removed, or rearranged. The transcript highlights that genome size is not fixed, and that these changes can shape the...

gene families

Shared Origins of Gene Families

Gene families are groups of related genes that share a common origin. They form when genes are copied and then change over time. These related genes can be found within the same genome. The video also connects gene families to homologous genes and orthologous genes. Homologous genes are genes with a shared evolutionary origin. Orthologous genes are homologous genes found in different species. Gene families help show how these relationships are used to study evolution and related gene functions.

gene evolution - fast or slow?

Gene Evolution Rates and Selection

Gene evolution can happen at different rates, and natural selection helps shape those changes. Some genes change slowly because important DNA changes are removed over time. Other genes can change more quickly when different mutations are kept in a population. The rate of evolution depends on how a gene is used and how strongly it is affected by selection. Genes with essential jobs often stay more similar across species. Genes under weaker pressure may show more variation and may evolve faster.<br...

types of genetic transfer between organisms

types-of-genetic-transfer-between-organisms

Vertical and Horizontal Gene Transfer

Genetic transfer between organisms happens in two main ways: vertical gene transfer and horizontal gene transfer. These two routes explain how hereditary material moves from one generation to the next or between organisms that are not parent and offspring. Vertical gene transfer passes genes from parent to offspring during reproduction. This is the usual way genetic information is inherited in living things. Horizontal gene transfer moves genetic material between organisms outside of...

key terms and concepts

Learn how the cytoplasm, cytosol, and cytoskeleton support cell structure, protein folding, transport, cell division, movement, and muscle contraction.

Cytoplasm and the Cell’s Internal Support | JoVE K12

cell biology

JoVE Core Cell Biology illustrates complex cellular processes in easy-to-understand yet comprehensive animated video lessons. This collection focuses on the essential components and functions of cells, including organelles and membranes, cellular transport, and cell energetics. It is complemented by scientist-in-action videos that demonstrate the application of cell biology in real-world research experiments.

Louisiana Student Standards for Science

High School

Life Sciences

heredity-inheritance-and-variation-of-traits

Heredity: Inheritance And Variation Of Traits

HS-LS3-1

Compounds Essential to Human Function

The human body is composed of cells that are fundamentally made up of several different molecules. These molecules are essential to carry out all ...

Macromolecules

Biomolecules
Organisms contain a wide variety of organic molecules with numerous functions which depend on the chemical structures and properties of these ...

Solution Preparation
ExpandCAUTION: It is important to always use care when handling reagents. For example, iodine will stain clothes and skin so wear ...

Identifying Macromolecules with Indicator Solutions
ExpandHYPOTHESES: In this activity, the experimental hypothesis might be that the addition of an ...

pH Regulation in Cells

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Chemistry of the Cell

Overview of Functional Groups

Functional groups are a group of atoms with characteristic properties, which when linked to the carbon skeleton of a molecule, alter the properties of ...

Introduction to Carbohydrates

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Carbohydrate Metabolism

Sugars as Energy Storage Molecules

What are Lipids?

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Lipid-derived Compounds in the Human Body

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Fats as Energy Storage Molecules

What are Proteins?

Protein Organization

Globular Proteins

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Fibrous Proteins

Fibrous proteins are either long and narrow proteins or assemble to form long and thin structures. They contain repetitive units and usually consist of ...

Protein Denaturation

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Role of Proteins in the Human Body

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Nucleic Acids and Nucleotides

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Nucleic Acid Structure

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ATP Energy Storage and Release

ATP and Macromolecule Synthesis

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Construct an explanation to illustrate relationships between structure and function of major macromolecules essential for life.

LS.Bio.1.1

Introduction to Enzymes

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Enzymes and Activation Energy

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Introduction to Enzyme Kinetics

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Turnover Number and Catalytic Efficiency

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Catalytically Perfect Enzymes

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introduction-to-mechanisms-of-enzyme-catalysis

Introduction to Mechanisms of Enzyme Catalysis

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Ligand Binding and Linkage

Cooperative Allosteric Transitions

Ribozymes

Carry out investigations to illustrate how enzymes act as catalysts for biochemical reactions and how environmental factors affect enzyme activity.

LS.Bio.1.2

What are Cells?

Cells are the smallest and basic units of life, whether it is a single cell that forms the entire organism, e.g., in a bacterium or trillions of them, ...

Cell Size

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Eukaryotic Compartmentalization

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Prokaryotic Cells

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The cytoplasm consists of organelles and a framework of protein scaffolds called the cytoskeleton suspended in an aqueous solution, the cytosol. The ...

The Nucleus

The nucleus is a membrane-bound organelle that acts as a control center in a eukaryotic cell. It contains chromosomal DNA, which controls gene expression ...

Endoplasmic Reticulum

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Ribosomes

Ribosomes translate genetic information encoded by messenger RNA (mRNA) into proteins. Both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells have ribosomes. Cells that ...

Golgi Apparatus

As they leave the Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER), properly folded and assembled proteins are selectively packaged into vesicles. These vesicles are ...

Lysosomes

Lysosomes are membrane-enclosed spherical sacs derived from the Golgi apparatus. The most important function of the lysosome is degrading macromolecules ...

Peroxisomes

Peroxisomes and mitochondria are two important oxygen-utilizing organelles in eukaryotic cells. Mitochondria carry out cellular respiration&#x2014;the ...

Introduction to the Cytoskeleton

Overview of the Cytoskeleton
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Introduction to Actin

Actin is a highly conserved cytoskeletal protein found abundantly in eukaryotic cells. It constitutes 10% weight of the total cellular protein in muscle ...

Cell Structure

Background
Cells represent the most basic biological units of all organisms, whether it be simple, single-celled organisms like bacteria, or large, ...

overview-of-myosin-structure-and-function

Overview of Myosin Structure and Function

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Visualizing Onion and Cheek Cells
ExpandImmediately before the experiment, wash and peel onion bulbs for the class.
Remove the entire brown outer skin and ...

Microtubules

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The Structure of Intermediate Filaments

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Types of Intermediate Filaments

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Gap Junctions

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The Extracellular Matrix

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Tissues

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Plant Cell Wall

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Plasmodesmata

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Use models to explain how the structure of organelles determines its function and supports overall cell processes.

LS.Bio.1.3

Cells are the smallest and basic units of life, whether it is a single cell that forms the entire organism, e.g., in a bacterium, or trillions of them, ...

The Tree of Life - Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukaryotes

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Prokaryotic vs. Eukaryotic Cells

Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells represent two fundamental types of cellular organization, differing significantly in structure, complexity, and function. ...

Construct explanations to compare prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells in terms of structures and degree of complexity.

LS.Bio.1.4

The DNA Helix

Deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA, is the genetic material responsible for passing traits from generation to generation in all organisms and most viruses. DNA ...

The Central Dogma

The central dogma explains the flow of genetic information from DNA nucleotides to the amino acid sequence of proteins.
RNA is the Missing Link Between ...

Construct an explanation to summarize how DNA and RNA direct the synthesis of proteins.

Analyze how the relationship between structure and function supports life processes within organisms.

Cytoplasm and the Cell’s Internal Support

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