Name: how volcanic rock forms from lava
Uploaded: 2023-04-30T06:35:01.000Z
Duration: 7 min 28 s
Channel: JoVE

K12 Standards

north-carolina-k-12-science-standard-course-of-study

North Carolina K-12 Science Standard Course of Study

9-12

Earth and Environmental Science

Earth's Systems

ESS.EES.2.1

Igneous Volcanic Rock

1. CO2 Volcano <ol> 	<li>Fill a plastic container with a thin neck (a 16-oz. soda bottle for instance) about half-full with warm water.</li> 	<li>Bury the bottle beneath modeling clay or dough, leaving just the neck (opening) of the bottle exposed, simulating the structure of a volcano.</li> 	<li>Add a few drops of dishwashing liquid (in order to make the liquid frothy and likely to produce bubbles).</li> 	<li>Using a folded piece of paper as a funnel, add 4 teaspoons (approximately 15-20 mL) of baking soda.</li> 	<li>Gradually add red vinegar to the plastic container. If using a 16-oz. soda bottle, add 8-10 oz. of vinegar. Add the vinegar to the container until it begins to effervesce.</li> 	<li>If desired, cork the container for a &#8220;violent eruption&#8221; or leave it uncorked for a more quiescent eruption.</li> </ol> 2. Lava Layering <ol> 	<li>Warm paraffin on a hot plate so it becomes a viscous fluid.</li> 	<li>Take a thin section of cardboard, and bend in to form bends and troughs of various shapes. Pour the liquid paraffin onto the inclined cardboard surface. As the paraffin flows over the uneven surface it will form a layer of varying thickness, as would be seen in a real lava flow.</li> 	<li>After the paraffin has cooled and solidified, repeat the process two or three times, in order to simulate successive lava flows.</li> </ol> <div class="chapter_text" id="script_0" style="line-height: 20.8px;"> Volcanic rock is a specific type of igneous rock that is formed when magma breaches the surface and solidifies in the subaerial environment. Its study provides insights into past, and possibly future, volcanic activity. Magma is molten rock, which is produced within the Earth and reaches temperatures from 800 to 1,200 &#176;C. There are three primary mechanisms of magma production: addition of heat, addition of volatiles, or decompression. Each of these different types of melting produces specific types of magma, and therefore generate volcanoes with different eruptive styles and structure. This video will illustrate the differences between types of lava deposition on a small scale using paraffin wax, and different eruption types using a CO2 based demonstration. </div> <div class="chapter_text" id="script_1" style="line-height: 20.8px;"> Highly viscous magmas with high volatile contents tend to produce the most explosive eruptions, compared to low viscosity and low volatile content magmas, which generally produce the most quiescent eruptions. In quiescent eruptions, lava flows off the side of the volcano or outward from fissures. Lava flows are typically slow moving, and as such may cause property damage, but rarely loss of life. In contrast, more explosive reactions result in magma, rock, and gas, collectively known as &#34;pyroclastic material&#34;, to be ejected from the volcano. The type of mantle being melted, and the degree of melting, can both affect magma composition. The resultant magma formed will then affect the resulting volcano produced, and the eruption type observed. Generally, viscous magma is more felsic in composition and forms as a result of melting of continental crust or continental lithosphere. In contrast, less viscous magma is typically mafic, and forms during melting of oceanic lithosphere or asthenopheric mantle melting. For more information on felsic and mafic rock, see this collection&#39;s other video on Igneous Rock. Volcanoes are typically generated by successive depositions of lava over time. Highly viscous lava creates tall, steep edifices, known as stratovolcanoes. In contrast, free-flowing lava travels further before solidifying, creating short, low-profile structures known as shield volcanoes. Now that we are familiar with the concepts behind magma production, deposition, and volcanic eruption, let&#39;s take a look at how these can be simulated in the laboratory. </div> <div class="chapter_text" id="script_2" style="line-height: 20.8px;"> The first procedure demonstrates quiescent and explosive eruptions. To begin, fill a plastic container with a thin neck to about half full with warm water. To simulate the structure of a volcano, bury the bottle beneath modeling clay or dough, leaving just the neck opening of the bottle exposed. Next, add roughly 4 teaspoons of baking soda. Add vinegar to the bottle until it begins to effervesce. Including dye can aid with visibility. For a quiescent eruption leave the bottle open. If simulation of a violent eruption is desired, cork the bottle. In the quiescent eruption, some of the material flowed outwards like a lava flow. The frothy nature of the flow is reminiscent of lava that is charged with volatiles. Most volcanic eruptions are linked to volatile loss. Those that are particularly explosive will have considerable volatile emanations. In the corked container, the initial eruption involves pyroclastic-type material that is ejected into the air above the volcanic edifice. This also indicates what can happen in naturally blocked volcanoes. </div> <div class="chapter_text" id="script_3" style="line-height: 20.8px;"> The next demonstration relates to is lava layering. To demonstrate this, warm paraffin on a hot plate until it becomes a viscous fluid. Pour the liquid paraffin onto an inclined thin cardboard surface with bends of various shapes. This varied gradient simulates lava flow on the uneven surface of real volcanoes. As the paraffin flows over the uneven surface, it will form a layer of varying thickness, which simulates what would be seen on the surface of a real volcano. Allow the first paraffin layer to cool, then pour a second layer over the first, starting from the same point. Repeat this process several times to simulate successive lava flows. Note how the layers thin with distance from the magma source. Also observe that subsequent hot layers or eruptions can partially melt underlying layers. The layering demonstrates the principle of superposition. Older layers are found at the bottom, with deposits from more recent eruptions stratified above. Additionally, the bent surface of the card simulates the uneven surface seen on most volcanoes. Different thicknesses of magma will collect on the steeper or shallower parts of the volcano surface, changing the landscape of the volcano with each successive eruption. </div> <div class="chapter_text" id="script_4" style="line-height: 20.8px;"> Understanding volcanic rock composition, formation, and the properties that lead to different eruption phenomena has vast applications for geologists and human populations as a whole. Recognizing types of volcanic rock in the field and linking them to specific eruptive styles can inform geologists of the type of threats posed to nearby communities. This information can help with implementing eruption emergency plans, or with targeted safety construction or town planning. Types of volcanic rock can also be studied to evaluate the severity or explosivity of past eruptions. This information can be helpful when planning land use. As volcanic deposition can also positively influence soil and agriculture, such areas may be economically fruitful if the risk of severe eruption is considered low. Volcanic layering can be a window into the geological history of a region. Layers can contain information about past climate, environment, and life, and are easy to date, providing useful time markers in geologic investigations. Volcanoes can also create scenic landscapes, including the iconic Arthur&#39;s Seat, which overlooks the city of Edinburgh in Scotland. This is the largest remaining part of an extinct volcano that dates back to the Carboniferous period, and is designated a Site of Special Scientific Interest. </div> <div class="chapter_text" id="script_5" style="line-height: 20.8px;"> You&#39;ve just watched JoVE&#39;s introduction to volcanic igneous rocks. You should now understand the different types of magma and their deposition, principles of quiescent and explosive eruptions, and how to simulate these in the laboratory or at home. Thanks for watching! Thanks for watching! </div>

Volcanism and associated rocks are of great interest to geologists. Not only do volcanic eruptions pose a threat to nearby communities, it is important to recognize that they can also lead to scenic landscapes, and positively influence soil and agricultural productivity.
Recognizing volcanic rocks in the field, linking them to specific eruptive styles, and ascertaining regions of past activity are part of fundamental geologic assessments for regions in which people live and/or work. Volcanic r...

igneous volcanic rock

Source: Laboratory of <a href="https://www.jove.com/author/Alan_Lester">Alan Lester</a> - University of Colorado Boulder
Igneous rocks are the products of cooling and crystallization of magma. Volcanic rocks are a particular variety of igneous rock, forming as a consequence of magma breaching the surface, then cooling and crystallizing in the subaerial environment. 
Magma is molten rock that typically ranges in temperature from approximately 800 °C to 1,200 °C (Figure 1). Magma itself is produced within the Earth via three primary melting mechanisms, namely the addition of heat, addition of volatiles, and decompression. Each mode of melt generation tends to produce specific types of magma and, therefore, distinct eruptive styles and structures.
<img alt="Volcanic lava flow cooling, geological process, molten rock texture, natural phenomenon study." src="/files/ftp_upload/10037/10037fig1.jpg" data-altupdatedat="1761830439000" data-alt="Figure 1"> 
Figure 1. Fresh lava breakout on Kilauea, Hawaii. Lava is the term for magma that is on Earth’s surface.

1. CO2 Volcano
During the CO2 experiment, some of the material will flow outwards like a lava flow. The frothy nature of the flow is reminiscent of lava that is charged with volatiles. Most volcanic eruptions are linked to volatile loss. Those that are particularly explosive will have considerable volatile emanations. If the container is corked, then the initial eruption will involve pyroclastic-type material that is ejected into the air above the volcani...

Source: Laboratory of Alan Lester - University of Colorado Boulder
Igneous rocks are the products of cooling and crystallization of magma. Volcanic rocks ...

Volcanic rock is a specific type of igneous rock that is formed when magma breaches the surface and solidifies in the subaerial environment. Its study provides insights into past, and possibly future, volcanic activity.Magma is molten rock, which is produced within the Earth and reaches temperatures from 800 to 1,200 ?C. There are three primary mechanisms of magma production: addition of heat, addition of volatiles, or decompression. Each of these different types of melting produces specific types of magma, and therefore generate volcanoes with different eruptive styles and structure. This video will illustrate the differences between types of lava deposition on a small scale using paraffin wax, and different eruption types using a CO2 based demonstration.Highly viscous magmas with high volatile contents tend to produce the most explosive eruptions, compared to low viscosity and low volatile content magmas, which generally produce the most quiescent eruptions.In quiescent eruptions, lava flows off the side of the volcano or outward from fissures. Lava flows are typically slow moving, and as such may cause property damage, but rarely loss of life. In contrast, more explosive reactions result in magma, rock, and gas, collectively known as "pyroclastic material", to be ejected from the volcano.The type of mantle being melted, and the degree of melting, can both affect magma composition. The resultant magma formed will then affect the resulting volcano produced, and the eruption type observed.Generally, viscous magma is more felsic in composition and forms as a result of melting of continental crust or continental lithosphere. In contrast, less viscous magma is typically mafic, and forms during melting of oceanic lithosphere or asthenopheric mantle melting. For more information on felsic and mafic rock, see this collection's other video on Igneous Rock.Volcanoes are typically generated by successive depositions of lava over time. Highly viscous lava creates tall, steep edifices, known as stratovolcanoes. In contrast, free-flowing lava travels further before solidifying, creating short, low-profile structures known as shield volcanoes.Now that we are familiar with the concepts behind magma production, deposition, and volcanic eruption, let's take a look at how these can be simulated in the laboratory.The first procedure demonstrates quiescent and explosive eruptions. To begin, fill a plastic container with a thin neck to about half full with warm water. To simulate the structure of a volcano, bury the bottle beneath modeling clay or dough, leaving just the neck opening of the bottle exposed. Next, add roughly 4 teaspoons of baking soda.Add vinegar to the bottle until it begins to effervesce. Including dye can aid with visibility. For a quiescent eruption leave the bottle open. If simulation of a violent eruption is desired, cork the bottle.In the quiescent eruption, some of the material flowed outwards like a lava flow. The frothy nature of the flow is reminiscent of lava that is charged with volatiles.Most volcanic eruptions are linked to volatile loss. Those that are particularly explosive will have considerable volatile emanations. In the corked container, the initial eruption involves pyroclastic-type material that is ejected into the air above the volcanic edifice. This also indicates what can happen in naturally blocked volcanoes.The next demonstration relates to is lava layering. To demonstrate this, warm paraffin on a hot plate until it becomes a viscous fluid. Pour the liquid paraffin onto an inclined thin cardboard surface with bends of various shapes. This varied gradient simulates lava flow on the uneven surface of real volcanoes. As the paraffin flows over the uneven surface, it will form a layer of varying thickness, which simulates what would be seen on the surface of a real volcano. Allow the first paraffin layer to cool, then pour a second layer over the first, starting from the same point. Repeat this process several times to simulate successive lava flows.Note how the layers thin with distance from the magma source. Also observe that subsequent hot layers or eruptions can partially melt underlying layers.The layering demonstrates the principle of superposition. Older layers are found at the bottom, with deposits from more recent eruptions stratified above.Additionally, the bent surface of the card simulates the uneven surface seen on most volcanoes. Different thicknesses of magma will collect on the steeper or shallower parts of the volcano surface, changing the landscape of the volcano with each successive eruption.Understanding volcanic rock composition, formation, and the properties that lead to different eruption phenomena has vast applications for geologists and human populations as a whole.Recognizing types of volcanic rock in the field and linking them to specific eruptive styles can inform geologists of the type of threats posed to nearby communities. This information can help with implementing eruption emergency plans, or with targeted safety construction or town planning.Types of volcanic rock can also be studied to evaluate the severity or explosivity of past eruptions. This information can be helpful when planning land use. As volcanic deposition can also positively influence soil and agriculture, such areas may be economically fruitful if the risk of severe eruption is considered low.Volcanic layering can be a window into the geological history of a region. Layers can contain information about past climate, environment, and life, and are easy to date, providing useful time markers in geologic investigations. Volcanoes can also create scenic landscapes, including the iconic Arthur's Seat, which overlooks the city of Edinburgh in Scotland. This is the largest remaining part of an extinct volcano that dates back to the Carboniferous period, and is designated a Site of Special Scientific Interest.You've just watched JoVE's introduction to volcanic igneous rocks. You should now understand the different types of magma and their deposition, principles of quiescent and explosive eruptions, and how to simulate these in the laboratory or at home. Thanks for watching! Thanks for watching!

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JoVE Science Education

Environmental Sciences

Earth Science

how volcanic rock forms from lava

Volcanic rock forms when magma reaches Earth’s surface and cools. It is a type of igneous rock, which means it comes from cooling and crystallization of molten material. When magma is on the surface, it is called lava.

Magma is molten rock that is usually between about 800 °C and 1,200 °C. It forms inside Earth through three main melting processes. These are the addition of heat, the addition of volatiles, and decompression.

Each way of making magma can produce a different kind of magma. That can also lead to different eruptive styles and rock structures. Fresh lava breaking out at Kilauea, Hawaii, is one example of magma reaching the surface and becoming volcanic rock.

How Volcanic Rock Forms From Lava

determining spatial orientation of rock layers with the brunton compass

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Measuring Rock Layer Strike and Dip

The Brunton compass is used to measure the spatial orientation of rock layers and other rock features. Many rock units show planar surfaces or linear features. These include bedding surfaces, fault surfaces, fracture surfaces, joint surfaces, foliation, and mineral alignment. These measurements give geologists the raw data they need to study how rock units formed and how they changed over time. The directions are recorded as strike and dip. Strike is the direction of a flat surface, and dip...

using topographic maps to generate topographic profiles

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Reading Contour Lines on Topographic Maps

Topographic maps show Earth’s surface in a plan view, which means an overhead view. They give a clear look at land shape from above. These maps are a standard way to represent three-dimensional terrain on a flat page. Contour lines are the key feature of a topographic map. Each line connects places with the same elevation, or height above sea level. The spacing between contour lines is called the elevation interval, and it depends on how much detail the map shows and on the land itself. <br...

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Reading Geologic Maps in 3D

Geologic maps show rock units at Earth’s surface and help geologists infer what lies below it. They began in Europe in the mid-to-late 18th century and have since become a key tool for studying rock distribution, subsurface structure, and changes through time. A modern geologic map is a data-rich, two-dimensional plan view built on a topographic map. On these maps, color variations mark specific rock units. The lines where one unit meets another are called contacts. Geologic maps also use...

physical properties of minerals i: crystals and cleavage

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Mineral Crystal Shapes and Cleavage

Mineral crystal shapes and cleavage reveal how a mineral is built at the atomic level. These physical properties are measurable and visible traits that help identify minerals. They include color, streak, magnetic properties, hardness, crystal growth form, and crystal cleavage. Each of these properties is specific to a mineral. They are tied to the mineral’s chemical make-up and atomic structure. Crystal growth form and crystal cleavage both come mainly from the repeated pattern of basic atomic...

physical properties of minerals ii: polymineralic analysis

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Mineral Clues for Rock Identification

Mineral color, streak, luster, hardness, magnetism, and acid reaction help identify minerals and rocks. These physical properties can be seen or measured in hand samples and in the field. They are tied to a mineral’s chemical makeup and, to a lesser extent, its atomic structure. The video also explains why these clues work for rocks as well as minerals. Rocks are made of mineral grains, and most rocks contain more than one mineral type, which means they are polymineralic. Some rocks are...

Volcanic rock forms when magma reaches Earth’s surface and cools. It is a type of igneous rock, which means it comes from cooling and crystallization of molten material. When magma is on the surface, it is called lava. Magma is molten rock that is usually between about 800 °C and 1,200 °C. It forms inside Earth through three main melting processes. These are the addition of heat, the addition of volatiles, and decompression. Each way of making magma can produce a different kind of magma. That...

igneous intrusive rock

Magma Cooling and Igneous Rock

Igneous rocks form when hot liquid rock, called magma, cools and crystallizes. Magma temperatures typically range from about 800 °C to 1,200 °C. These rocks record the freezing of molten material inside Earth.

an overview of bgdgt biomarker analysis for paleoclimatology

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Sediment Biomarkers for Past Climate Records

Sediment biomarkers can record past climate conditions, and branched GDGTs are one example used to study temperature in freshwater basins. These organic compounds are extracted from natural samples, purified, and then measured to help reconstruct environments from the past. In paleoclimatology, scientists use these records to better understand climate change over time. Sediments build up over geologic time in sedimentary basins, which are low areas in the Earth’s crust where material is...

an overview of alkenone biomarker analysis for paleothermometry

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Sea Surface Temperature from Alkenone Ratios

Sea surface temperature can be reconstructed from alkenone ratios preserved in marine sediment. Alkenones are long-chain, unsaturated alkyl ketones made by some haptophyte algae, especially coccolithophores such as Emiliania huxleyi and Gephyrocapsa oceanica in the open ocean. The most widely used proxy is the U K'37 index, which compares the C37:2 and C37:3 alkenones. Because the ratio changes with growth temperature, it can be used to estimate past sea surface temperature. The U K'37 proxy...

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How Organic Carbon Becomes Biomarkers

Organic material and inorganic material are chemically different. In an ecosystem, living material includes leaves, fungi, bark, and tissue. Non-living material includes rocks, their minerals, oxygen, water, and metals. Organic matter contains carbon linked to other carbon and hydrogen molecules, which sets it apart from inorganic matter. Carbon is especially flexible in the kinds of bonds it can form. Its valence range from -4 to +4 lets it make up to four separate covalent bonds with nearby...

soxhlet extraction of lipid biomarkers from sediment

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Large-Volume Sediment Extraction for Standards

Large-volume sediment extraction is used to isolate compounds for chemical standards. These standards help labs track the performance, accuracy, and precision of instruments over time. That way, a measurement made today can be compared with one made a year later. Because standards must be checked over long periods, labs often need large amounts of material. Many chemical standards can be bought from companies such as Sigma-Aldrich and Fisher. But some natural compounds needed for paleoclimatic...

extraction of biomarkers from sediments - accelerated solvent extraction

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Sediment biomarkers can help scientists reconstruct past air and water temperatures. In this method, a group of organic biomarkers called glycerol-dialkyl glycerol-tetraethers, or GDGTs, is studied in modern sediments and in older sediment layers of known age. GDGTs are produced by a suite of archaea and bacteria. Their distribution changes in a predictable way in response to temperature. That pattern lets researchers use sediment records to track how climate changed over time. These...

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Saponification for Cleaner GC-FID Analysis

Saponification helps clean up complex lipid samples before gas chromatography analysis. A total lipid extract, or TLE, from an organic solvent extraction can contain hundreds or even thousands of compounds. Researchers may only need a few target compounds. They may also need to remove unwanted material that gets in the way or co-elutes, meaning it comes off the gas chromatograph at the same time as another compound. This sample cleanup supports measurement on a gas chromatograph coupled to a...

purification of a total lipid extract with column chromatography

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Separating Lipid Classes by Column Chromatography

Column chromatography is used to separate lipid classes in a total lipid extract. A total lipid extract, or TLE, is often a complex mixture made up of hundreds or even thousands of compounds. Researchers may only need a few target compounds, so they remove the compounds they are not studying. Those target compounds can belong to different classes, including alkanes, ketones, alcohols, and acids. In some studies, a sample may contain many compounds, but only a small set matters for analysis.

removal of branched and cyclic compounds by urea adduction for uk'37 paleothermometry

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Urea Adduction Separates Lipid Shapes

Urea adduction separates straight-chain lipids from branched and cyclic compounds in a total lipid extract. Researchers use this step when they want only a small set of target molecules from a sample that may contain hundreds or even thousands of compounds. For paleothermometry, the target compounds are the alkenones used in U k'37 and the isoprenoidal glycerol dialkyl glycerol tetraethers, or GDGTs, used in MBT/CBT. Together, these organic paleothermometers depend on only six compounds: two...

earth science

This collection features topics ranging from geology to geochemistry; with a variety of demonstrations including physical and chemical properties of minerals and the analysis of rock formations. 

See how magma becomes volcanic rock as it cools at Earth’s surface, and learn the three main ways magma forms inside Earth.

How Volcanic Rock Forms From Lava | JoVE K12

ESS.EES.2.2

ESS.EES.2.4

ESS.EES.2.5

Pennsylvania State Academic Standards

Earth and Space Science

3.3.9-12.I

History of Earth

3.3.9-12.F

3.3.9-12.G

3.3.9-12.J

Louisiana Student Standards for Science

High School

Earth’s Place In The Universe

HS-ESS1-5

HS-ESS1-6

Earth’s Systems

HS-ESS2-1

HS-ESS2-3

Human Sustainability

HS-ESS3-1

Environmental Science

HS-ESS2-5

ohios-learning-standards-and-model-curriculum

Ohio’s Learning Standards and Model Curriculum

Physical Geology

igneous-metamorphic-and-sedimentary-rocks

Igneous, Metamorphic And Sedimentary Rocks

Igneous

Metamorphic

Earth's History

The geologic rock record

Plate Tectonics

Internal Earth

Structure of Earth

Plate motion

Virginia  Standards of Learning

HIgh School

ES.4

ES.4.b

ES.4.c

ES.5

ES.5.a

ES.5.b

ES.5.c

ES.5.d

ES.7

ES.7.a

ES.7.b

ES.7.c

Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills

Earth Systems Science

112.49.c.6.

112.49.c.6.A.

112.49.c.7.

112.49.c.7.B.

112.49.c.8.

112.49.c.8.G.

new-jersey-student-learning-standards-for-science

New Jersey Student Learning Standards for Science

Life Science

ecosystems-interactions-energy-and-dynamics

Ecosystems: Interactions, Energy, and Dynamics

HS-LS2-6

Alabama Course of Study Science

9-12.ESS.2.4.a

9-12.ESS.2.6.b

9-12.EVS.3.5

Astronomy

112.48.c.13.

112.48.c.13.A.

Next Generation Science Standards

Earth’s Place in the Universe

HS-ESS2-2

Earth and Human Activity

Florida Department of Education

SC.912.E.6

SC.912.E.6.1

SC.912.E.6.3

SC.912.E.6.4

Georgia Standards of Excellence

Geology

The Rock Cycle

SG2.b

south-carolina-college-and-career-ready-science-standards

South Carolina College and Career Ready Science Standards

Earth and Space Science (ESS)

E-ESS1-5.

E-ESS1-6.

E-ESS2-1.

E-ESS2-3.

new-york-state-science-learning-standards

New York State Science Learning Standards

Earth and Space Sciences

HS-ESS1-5.

HS-ESS1-6.

HS-ESS2-1.

HS-ESS3-1.

Oceanography

SO2.

SO2.2

Alan Lester

University of Colorado Boulder

Overview

Principles of Volcanic Rock Formation

Construction of a CO2 Volcano

Lava Layering

Applications

Summary

The Carbon Cycle

Carbon is the basis of all organic matter on Earth, and is recycled through the ecosystem in two primary processes: one in which carbon is exchanged among ...

Igneous Intrusive Rock

Source: Laboratory of Alan Lester - University of Colorado Boulder
Igneous rocks are products of the cooling and crystallization of high temperature ...

Using Topographic Maps to Generate Topographic Profiles

Source: Laboratory of Alan Lester - University of Colorado Boulder
Topographic maps are &#34;plan-view&#34; representations of Earth&#39;s ...

Determining Spatial Orientation of Rock Layers with the Brunton Compass

Source: Laboratory of Alan Lester - University of Colorado Boulder
Most rock units exhibit some form of planar surfaces or linear features. Examples ...

Making a Geologic Cross Section

Source: Laboratory of Alan Lester - University of Colorado Boulder
Geologic maps were first made and utilized in Europe, in the mid-to-late 18th century. ...

Use models to explain how mantle convection powers plate tectonics.

Analyze and interpret data to predict locations of volcanoes and earthquakes based on plate boundaries.

An Overview of Alkenone Biomarker Analysis for Paleothermometry

Source: Laboratory of Jeff Salacup&#160;- University of Massachusetts Amherst
Throughout this series of videos, natural samples were extracted and ...

Use models to explain how plate tectonics influence topography.

ESS.EES.2.3

Analyze how the geosphere is shaped by plate tectonics and the rock cycle.

How Volcanic Rock Forms From Lava

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