Name: reading contour lines on topographic maps
Uploaded: 2023-04-30T06:39:17.000Z
Duration: 7 min 13 s
Channel: JoVE

K12 Standards

north-carolina-k-12-science-standard-course-of-study

North Carolina K-12 Science Standard Course of Study

9-12

Earth and Environmental Science

Earth's Systems

ESS.EES.2.1

using-topographic-maps-to-generate-topographic-profiles

Using Topographic Maps to Generate Topographic Profiles

<ol>
	<li>Obtain a topographic map.</li>
	<li>Establish a line between two specified points on the map. Call these points, A-A&#39;, or X-X&#39;, or Y-Y&#39;.</li>
	<li>Lay the edge of a paper strip along the cross-section line, marking the two points, A-A&#39;, with tick marks.</li>
	<li>Place a tick mark where each of the contour lines intersects the line of the cross-section. Add notations that indicate the elevations of those contour lines.
	<ol>
		<li>If there is substantial topographic variation along the chosen line, A-A&#39;, start by only marking the intersection of the line with the major contours. The major contours (also called index contours) are those that show up on the map as bold, slightly heavier lines.
		<ol>
			<li>For example, major contours on a 7.5-minute quadrangle map are typically used to indicate 200 ft. intervals on the map, with the standard contour lines representing 40 ft. intervals. This means that between every major contour, there are 4 standard contours (representing 5 steps in elevation to move from one major contour to the next).</li>
			<li>Along certain portions of the cross-section line, there may be steep topographic variation, and therefore, closely-spaced contour lines. Here, mark only the major contours. Where there is little topographic variation, mark all contours (where they intersect the cross-section line).</li>
		</ol>
		</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Set the paper with the tick marks along the x-axis of a piece of graph paper. Transfer the elevation marks onto the y-axis with a dot.
	<ol>
		<li>This generates a graph of elevation (y-axis) versus distance along the A-A&#39; line.</li>
		<li>The scale of the x-axis is defined by the map itself. The scale of the y-axis can be chosen to be equivalent to the map scale (resulting in no vertical exaggeration), or it can be chosen such that the small elevation variations are effectively &#34;stretched out&#34; (resulting in vertical exaggeration).</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Smooth the profile by connecting the dots, recognizing that most topographic variation in the real world does not exist in abrupt steps.</li>
</ol>
<div class="chapter_text" id="script_0" style="line-height: 20.8px;">
Topographic profiles give a side-on view of the terrain of an area of interest.
Topographic maps are a standard map view that provides aerial perspective and three-dimensional representation of the Earth&#39;s surface. These can be used to generate side-on views of the land, also known as topographic profiles.
When planning roads, railroads, pipelines, or hiking trails, topographic profiles can be a valuable tool to inform the professional or recreational user of the terrain in a target area.
This video will illustrate the process of making topographic profiles from topographic maps.
</div>
<div class="chapter_text" id="script_1" style="line-height: 20.8px;">
Among the defining features of topographic maps are the contour lines, which notate elevation. These lines convey three-dimensional information, and can inform the map user of various landform patterns, such as ridges, valleys, hills, or plateaus.
In topographic mapping, maps produced can vary in detail and scale, often dependent on the subject terrain. The elevation interval between the contour lines is one aspect that may vary. For example, in regions with significant topographic variation, maps may use contour lines of 40 to 100 feet. In generally flat-lying areas with little variation, maps may use more broadly separated 10 to 20 foot contours.
The precise composition and ability to extract dependable elevation data for any point on the topographic map allows for construction of topographic profiles. These &#34;side-on&#34; cross-sectional views are constructed using a line established between points, and recording contours crossing this line.
The subsequent data is plotted as a graph of elevation, with elevation plotted on the Y-axis, and the contour crossings along the X-axis. When these points are joined, this allows the user to see how the surface rises and falls along this hypothetical line.
Depending on the intended use of the map, vertical exaggeration can be applied to the Y-axis. This can be beneficial in scenarios where the topographic profile is being utilized to show the ruggedness of the terrain. In scenarios where the primary use of the topographic profile is to project geologic features or cross-sections, vertical exaggeration is best avoided.
Topographic profiles can be extremely useful, and provide a starting point for making geologic cross-sections that project rock structures or layers into the subsurface. In a very general sense, we find that ridges are composed of resistant rocks and valleys are composed of less-resistant, easily eroded rocks.
Now that we are familiar with topographic maps and making topographic profiles, let&#39;s take a look at how this is carried out.
</div>
<div class="chapter_text" id="script_2" style="line-height: 20.8px;">
The first step in making a topographic profile is to obtain a topographic map. These can be generated by the scientist, or gathered from a geological survey agency. Once an appropriate map has been selected, topographic profiling can be started.
Establish a line between two points that intersects the region of interest on the map. These should be labeled as A-A&#39;. Take a strip of paper, and lay it along the cross section line between the two points. On the strip of paper, place a tick mark where each of the contour lines intersects the line of the paper cross-section. Add notations indicating the elevations of those contour lines. Where there is little topographic variation, mark all contours. If there is substantial topographic variation along the chosen line, begin by only marking the intersection of the major, or &#34;index&#34; contours. These are seen in bold on the map.
On graph paper, draw the region of interest. Choose a scale for the y-axis with or without exaggeration. Set the tick marks along the x-axis and transfer each elevation mark onto the graph with a dot. This generates a graph of elevation versus distance along the A-A&#39; line. Connect these dots to make a continuous line.
The map defines the scale of the x-axis, but the Y-axis can be chosen to show a realistic view, or one that accentuates the local topography to demonstrate rugged terrain.
</div>
<div class="chapter_text" id="script_3" style="line-height: 20.8px;">
The ability to visualize local terrain is important in a variety of applications.
Evaluating the ruggedness or steepness of a terrain can be useful in assessing the difficulty of traversing a particular area. This can be applicable in different ways for different modes of transport such as hiking, biking, or driving. Field work for geological or biological surveys may require making a transect through an area for the purpose of taking measurements or collecting samples. Topographic profiles can inform field scientists of the feasibility and difficulty of sampling in different regions and facilitate planning of an appropriate transect.
Topographic profiles are the land-surface basis for constructing geologic cross-sections. These sections are a graphical projection of surface rock or soil layers into the subsurface, and provide a side view of the Earth&#39;s interior crucial to interpreting all kinds of geologic features. These can be used for many applications, including locating likely sources of ground water reservoirs, possible oil and gas pockets, or regions of folding or faulting.
Most topography on Earth is a consequence of the interplay between erosion and uplift, which is caused by volcanism, tectonism, tidal forcing, and impacts. Detailed analyses of topographic variations are a critical part of assessing terrain evolution.
</div>
<div class="chapter_text" id="script_4" style="line-height: 20.8px;">
You&#39;ve just watched JoVE&#39;s introduction to topographic maps and profiles. You should now understand the importance of topographic maps, how to make topographic profiles, and how these profiles can be useful to geologists and communities as a whole.
Thanks for watching!
</div>

A topographic profile provides a visual representation of the topographic highs and lows across a line segment on a map, from one point to another. Such profiles are used to evaluate the "ruggedness" of terrain, which is useful in assessing the difficulty of travel (driving, biking, or hiking as transportation modes for field-work) (Figure 1). Sometimes fieldwork requires making a transect through a region for the purpose of collecting samples or making geophysical measurements. A topogr...

using topographic maps to generate topographic profiles

Source: Laboratory of <a href="https://www.jove.com/author/Alan_Lester">Alan Lester</a> - University of Colorado Boulder
Topographic maps are &#34;plan-view&#34; representations of Earth&#39;s three-dimensional surface. They are a standard type of map-view that provides an overhead, or aerial, perspective.
Among the defining features of a topographic map are the contour lines that indicate locations of constant elevation. The elevation interval between the contour lines is dependent on the level of detail provided by the map and the kind of topography present. For example, regions with significant topographic variation might require contour lines separated by 40-100 ft., whereas generally flat-lying regions with little topographic variation might have more broadly separated 10-20 ft. contours.
To an experienced user of such maps, the patterns made by the topographic lines are representative of various landform patterns, such as ridges, valleys, hills, and plateaus.

Once properly smoothed and checked against the map itself (for elevation details between points), the resulting topographic profile is a representation of the highs and lows of a landscape, between the defined points.
When topographic profiles are used as a base for projections of geologic features into the subsurface, it's generally best to avoid vertical exaggeration - in other words, the horizontal and vertical axes should ha...

Source: Laboratory of Alan Lester - University of Colorado Boulder
Topographic maps are &#34;plan-view&#34; representations of Earth&#39;s ...

Topographic profiles give a side-on view of the terrain of an area of interest.Topographic maps are a standard map view that provides aerial perspective and three-dimensional representation of the Earth's surface. These can be used to generate side-on views of the land, also known as topographic profiles.When planning roads, railroads, pipelines, or hiking trails, topographic profiles can be a valuable tool to inform the professional or recreational user of the terrain in a target area.This video will illustrate the process of making topographic profiles from topographic maps.Among the defining features of topographic maps are the contour lines, which notate elevation. These lines convey three-dimensional information, and can inform the map user of various landform patterns, such as ridges, valleys, hills, or plateaus.In topographic mapping, maps produced can vary in detail and scale, often dependent on the subject terrain. The elevation interval between the contour lines is one aspect that may vary. For example, in regions with significant topographic variation, maps may use contour lines of 40 to 100 feet. In generally flat-lying areas with little variation, maps may use more broadly separated 10 to 20 foot contours.The precise composition and ability to extract dependable elevation data for any point on the topographic map allows for construction of topographic profiles. These "side-on" cross-sectional views are constructed using a line established between points, and recording contours crossing this line.The subsequent data is plotted as a graph of elevation, with elevation plotted on the Y-axis, and the contour crossings along the X-axis. When these points are joined, this allows the user to see how the surface rises and falls along this hypothetical line.Depending on the intended use of the map, vertical exaggeration can be applied to the Y-axis. This can be beneficial in scenarios where the topographic profile is being utilized to show the ruggedness of the terrain. In scenarios where the primary use of the topographic profile is to project geologic features or cross-sections, vertical exaggeration is best avoided.Topographic profiles can be extremely useful, and provide a starting point for making geologic cross-sections that project rock structures or layers into the subsurface. In a very general sense, we find that ridges are composed of resistant rocks and valleys are composed of less-resistant, easily eroded rocks.Now that we are familiar with topographic maps and making topographic profiles, let's take a look at how this is carried out.The first step in making a topographic profile is to obtain a topographic map. These can be generated by the scientist, or gathered from a geological survey agency. Once an appropriate map has been selected, topographic profiling can be started.Establish a line between two points that intersects the region of interest on the map. These should be labeled as A-A'. Take a strip of paper, and lay it along the cross section line between the two points. On the strip of paper, place a tick mark where each of the contour lines intersects the line of the paper cross-section. Add notations indicating the elevations of those contour lines. Where there is little topographic variation, mark all contours. If there is substantial topographic variation along the chosen line, begin by only marking the intersection of the major, or "index" contours. These are seen in bold on the map.On graph paper, draw the region of interest. Choose a scale for the y-axis with or without exaggeration. Set the tick marks along the x-axis and transfer each elevation mark onto the graph with a dot. This generates a graph of elevation versus distance along the A-A' line. Connect these dots to make a continuous line.The map defines the scale of the x-axis, but the Y-axis can be chosen to show a realistic view, or one that accentuates the local topography to demonstrate rugged terrain.The ability to visualize local terrain is important in a variety of applications.Evaluating the ruggedness or steepness of a terrain can be useful in assessing the difficulty of traversing a particular area. This can be applicable in different ways for different modes of transport such as hiking, biking, or driving. Field work for geological or biological surveys may require making a transect through an area for the purpose of taking measurements or collecting samples. Topographic profiles can inform field scientists of the feasibility and difficulty of sampling in different regions and facilitate planning of an appropriate transect.Topographic profiles are the land-surface basis for constructing geologic cross-sections. These sections are a graphical projection of surface rock or soil layers into the subsurface, and provide a side view of the Earth's interior crucial to interpreting all kinds of geologic features. These can be used for many applications, including locating likely sources of ground water reservoirs, possible oil and gas pockets, or regions of folding or faulting.Most topography on Earth is a consequence of the interplay between erosion and uplift, which is caused by volcanism, tectonism, tidal forcing, and impacts. Detailed analyses of topographic variations are a critical part of assessing terrain evolution.You've just watched JoVE's introduction to topographic maps and profiles. You should now understand the importance of topographic maps, how to make topographic profiles, and how these profiles can be useful to geologists and communities as a whole.Thanks for watching!

Education

JoVE Science Education

Environmental Sciences

Earth Science

reading contour lines on topographic maps

Topographic maps show Earth’s surface in a plan view, which means an overhead view. They give a clear look at land shape from above. These maps are a standard way to represent three-dimensional terrain on a flat page.

Contour lines are the key feature of a topographic map. Each line connects places with the same elevation, or height above sea level. The spacing between contour lines is called the elevation interval, and it depends on how much detail the map shows and on the land itself.

Steeper or more varied regions often use contour intervals of 40 to 100 feet. Flatter regions with less change in elevation may use wider intervals of 10 to 20 feet. Once a reader understands the line patterns, the map can show landforms such as ridges, valleys, hills, and plateaus.

Reading Contour Lines on Topographic Maps

reading-contour-lines-on-topographic-maps

determining spatial orientation of rock layers with the brunton compass

determining-spatial-orientation-rock-layers-with-brunton

Measuring Rock Layer Strike and Dip

The Brunton compass is used to measure the spatial orientation of rock layers and other rock features. Many rock units show planar surfaces or linear features. These include bedding surfaces, fault surfaces, fracture surfaces, joint surfaces, foliation, and mineral alignment. These measurements give geologists the raw data they need to study how rock units formed and how they changed over time. The directions are recorded as strike and dip. Strike is the direction of a flat surface, and dip...

Topographic maps show Earth’s surface in a plan view, which means an overhead view. They give a clear look at land shape from above. These maps are a standard way to represent three-dimensional terrain on a flat page. Contour lines are the key feature of a topographic map. Each line connects places with the same elevation, or height above sea level. The spacing between contour lines is called the elevation interval, and it depends on how much detail the map shows and on the land itself. <br...

making a geologic cross section

Reading Geologic Maps in 3D

Geologic maps show rock units at Earth’s surface and help geologists infer what lies below it. They began in Europe in the mid-to-late 18th century and have since become a key tool for studying rock distribution, subsurface structure, and changes through time. A modern geologic map is a data-rich, two-dimensional plan view built on a topographic map. On these maps, color variations mark specific rock units. The lines where one unit meets another are called contacts. Geologic maps also use...

physical properties of minerals i: crystals and cleavage

physical-properties-of-minerals-i-crystals-and-cleavage

Mineral Crystal Shapes and Cleavage

Mineral crystal shapes and cleavage reveal how a mineral is built at the atomic level. These physical properties are measurable and visible traits that help identify minerals. They include color, streak, magnetic properties, hardness, crystal growth form, and crystal cleavage. Each of these properties is specific to a mineral. They are tied to the mineral’s chemical make-up and atomic structure. Crystal growth form and crystal cleavage both come mainly from the repeated pattern of basic atomic...

physical properties of minerals ii: polymineralic analysis

physical-properties-of-minerals-ii-polymineralic-analysis

Mineral Clues for Rock Identification

Mineral color, streak, luster, hardness, magnetism, and acid reaction help identify minerals and rocks. These physical properties can be seen or measured in hand samples and in the field. They are tied to a mineral’s chemical makeup and, to a lesser extent, its atomic structure. The video also explains why these clues work for rocks as well as minerals. Rocks are made of mineral grains, and most rocks contain more than one mineral type, which means they are polymineralic. Some rocks are...

igneous volcanic rock

How Volcanic Rock Forms From Lava

Volcanic rock forms when magma reaches Earth’s surface and cools. It is a type of igneous rock, which means it comes from cooling and crystallization of molten material. When magma is on the surface, it is called lava. Magma is molten rock that is usually between about 800 °C and 1,200 °C. It forms inside Earth through three main melting processes. These are the addition of heat, the addition of volatiles, and decompression. Each way of making magma can produce a different kind of magma. That...

igneous intrusive rock

Magma Cooling and Igneous Rock

Igneous rocks form when hot liquid rock, called magma, cools and crystallizes. Magma temperatures typically range from about 800 °C to 1,200 °C. These rocks record the freezing of molten material inside Earth.

an overview of bgdgt biomarker analysis for paleoclimatology

an-overview-of-bgdgt-biomarker-analysis-for-paleoclimatology

Sediment Biomarkers for Past Climate Records

Sediment biomarkers can record past climate conditions, and branched GDGTs are one example used to study temperature in freshwater basins. These organic compounds are extracted from natural samples, purified, and then measured to help reconstruct environments from the past. In paleoclimatology, scientists use these records to better understand climate change over time. Sediments build up over geologic time in sedimentary basins, which are low areas in the Earth’s crust where material is...

an overview of alkenone biomarker analysis for paleothermometry

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Sea Surface Temperature from Alkenone Ratios

Sea surface temperature can be reconstructed from alkenone ratios preserved in marine sediment. Alkenones are long-chain, unsaturated alkyl ketones made by some haptophyte algae, especially coccolithophores such as Emiliania huxleyi and Gephyrocapsa oceanica in the open ocean. The most widely used proxy is the U K'37 index, which compares the C37:2 and C37:3 alkenones. Because the ratio changes with growth temperature, it can be used to estimate past sea surface temperature. The U K'37 proxy...

sonication extraction of lipid biomarkers from sediment

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How Organic Carbon Becomes Biomarkers

Organic material and inorganic material are chemically different. In an ecosystem, living material includes leaves, fungi, bark, and tissue. Non-living material includes rocks, their minerals, oxygen, water, and metals. Organic matter contains carbon linked to other carbon and hydrogen molecules, which sets it apart from inorganic matter. Carbon is especially flexible in the kinds of bonds it can form. Its valence range from -4 to +4 lets it make up to four separate covalent bonds with nearby...

soxhlet extraction of lipid biomarkers from sediment

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Large-Volume Sediment Extraction for Standards

Large-volume sediment extraction is used to isolate compounds for chemical standards. These standards help labs track the performance, accuracy, and precision of instruments over time. That way, a measurement made today can be compared with one made a year later. Because standards must be checked over long periods, labs often need large amounts of material. Many chemical standards can be bought from companies such as Sigma-Aldrich and Fisher. But some natural compounds needed for paleoclimatic...

extraction of biomarkers from sediments - accelerated solvent extraction

extraction-of-biomarkers-from-sediments-accelerated-solvent-extraction

Sediment biomarkers can help scientists reconstruct past air and water temperatures. In this method, a group of organic biomarkers called glycerol-dialkyl glycerol-tetraethers, or GDGTs, is studied in modern sediments and in older sediment layers of known age. GDGTs are produced by a suite of archaea and bacteria. Their distribution changes in a predictable way in response to temperature. That pattern lets researchers use sediment records to track how climate changed over time. These...

conversion of fatty acid methyl esters by saponification for uk'37 paleothermometry

conversion-fatty-acid-methyl-esters-saponification-for-uk-37

Saponification for Cleaner GC-FID Analysis

Saponification helps clean up complex lipid samples before gas chromatography analysis. A total lipid extract, or TLE, from an organic solvent extraction can contain hundreds or even thousands of compounds. Researchers may only need a few target compounds. They may also need to remove unwanted material that gets in the way or co-elutes, meaning it comes off the gas chromatograph at the same time as another compound. This sample cleanup supports measurement on a gas chromatograph coupled to a...

purification of a total lipid extract with column chromatography

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Separating Lipid Classes by Column Chromatography

Column chromatography is used to separate lipid classes in a total lipid extract. A total lipid extract, or TLE, is often a complex mixture made up of hundreds or even thousands of compounds. Researchers may only need a few target compounds, so they remove the compounds they are not studying. Those target compounds can belong to different classes, including alkanes, ketones, alcohols, and acids. In some studies, a sample may contain many compounds, but only a small set matters for analysis.

removal of branched and cyclic compounds by urea adduction for uk'37 paleothermometry

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Urea Adduction Separates Lipid Shapes

Urea adduction separates straight-chain lipids from branched and cyclic compounds in a total lipid extract. Researchers use this step when they want only a small set of target molecules from a sample that may contain hundreds or even thousands of compounds. For paleothermometry, the target compounds are the alkenones used in U k'37 and the isoprenoidal glycerol dialkyl glycerol tetraethers, or GDGTs, used in MBT/CBT. Together, these organic paleothermometers depend on only six compounds: two...

earth science

This collection features topics ranging from geology to geochemistry; with a variety of demonstrations including physical and chemical properties of minerals and the analysis of rock formations. 

Learn how topographic maps use contour lines, elevation intervals, and line patterns to show hills, valleys, ridges, and plateaus.

Reading Contour Lines on Topographic Maps | JoVE K12

ESS.EES.2.2

ESS.EES.2.3

Pennsylvania State Academic Standards

Earth and Space Science

3.3.9-12.H

3.3.9-12.I

History of Earth

3.3.9-12.F

3.3.9-12.J

Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills

High School

Earth Systems Science

112.49.c.1.

112.49.c.1.D.

Louisiana Student Standards for Science

Earth’s Place In The Universe

HS-ESS1-5

Earth’s Systems

HS-ESS2-3

Environmental Science

HS-ESS2-2

HS-ESS2-5

ohios-learning-standards-and-model-curriculum

Ohio’s Learning Standards and Model Curriculum

Physical Geology

igneous-metamorphic-and-sedimentary-rocks

Igneous, Metamorphic And Sedimentary Rocks

Igneous

Metamorphic

Sedimentary

Ocean

Earth's History

The geologic rock record

Plate Tectonics

Internal Earth

Structure of Earth

Plate motion

Virginia  Standards of Learning

HIgh School

ES.1

ES.1.e

ES.4

ES.4.b

ES.5

ES.5.b

ES.5.d

ES.7

ES.7.a

ES.7.b

ES.10

ES.10.d

112.49.c.6.

112.49.c.6.A.

112.49.c.7.

112.49.c.7.B.

112.49.c.8.

112.49.c.8.B.

112.49.c.8.C.

112.49.c.8.E.

112.49.c.9.

112.49.c.9.A.

new-jersey-student-learning-standards-for-science

New Jersey Student Learning Standards for Science

Life Science

ecosystems-interactions-energy-and-dynamics

Ecosystems: Interactions, Energy, and Dynamics

HS-LS2-6

Alabama Course of Study Science

9-12.ESS.2.7.e

9-12.ESS.2.8.a

Unity and Diversity

9-12.EVS.2.3.b

Next Generation Science Standards

Earth’s Place in the Universe

HS-ESS2-1

Florida Department of Education

SC.912.E.6

SC.912.E.6.1

SC.912.E.6.2

new-york-state-science-learning-standards

New York State Science Learning Standards

Earth and Space Sciences

HS-ESS1-5.

HS-ESS2-1.

HS. ESS2-3.

Alan Lester

University of Colorado Boulder

Overview

Principles of Topographic Profiles

Making a Topographic Profile

Applications

Summary

Igneous Volcanic Rock

Source: Laboratory of Alan Lester - University of Colorado Boulder
Igneous rocks are the products of cooling and crystallization of magma. Volcanic rocks ...

The Carbon Cycle

Carbon is the basis of all organic matter on Earth, and is recycled through the ecosystem in two primary processes: one in which carbon is exchanged among ...

Igneous Intrusive Rock

Source: Laboratory of Alan Lester - University of Colorado Boulder
Igneous rocks are products of the cooling and crystallization of high temperature ...

Determining Spatial Orientation of Rock Layers with the Brunton Compass

Source: Laboratory of Alan Lester - University of Colorado Boulder
Most rock units exhibit some form of planar surfaces or linear features. Examples ...

Making a Geologic Cross Section

Source: Laboratory of Alan Lester - University of Colorado Boulder
Geologic maps were first made and utilized in Europe, in the mid-to-late 18th century. ...

Use models to explain how mantle convection powers plate tectonics.

Analyze and interpret data to predict locations of volcanoes and earthquakes based on plate boundaries.

An Overview of Alkenone Biomarker Analysis for Paleothermometry

Source: Laboratory of Jeff Salacup&#160;- University of Massachusetts Amherst
Throughout this series of videos, natural samples were extracted and ...

Topographic Surveying and Contours

Topographic surveying is critical for documenting the Earth's surface, focusing on capturing elevations, slopes, and natural and man-made features. It is ...

Plotting of Topographic Maps

Topographic maps represent the Earth's surface features using contour lines, which connect points of equal elevation to create a two-dimensional ...

Methods of Obtaining Topography

Topography involves measuring and mapping land elevations, natural features, and artificial structures to create accurate representations of the terrain. ...

Use models to explain how plate tectonics influence topography.

The Soil Ecosystem

Plants obtain inorganic minerals and water from the soil, which acts as a natural medium for land plants. The composition and quality of soil depend not ...

Conditions on Early Earth

What are Biogeochemical Cycles?

The most common elements in organic molecules, carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, and phosphorus, are only available in the ecosystem in limited ...

The Water Cycle

The Earth&rsquo;s hydrosphere includes all of the areas where the storage and movement of water occurs. Since water is the basis of all living processes, ...

Carry out investigations to explain how the rock cycle and rates of weathering, erosion, and soil formation influence Earth's systems.

ESS.EES.2.4

Analyze how the geosphere is shaped by plate tectonics and the rock cycle.

Reading Contour Lines on Topographic Maps

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