Name: metabolism in plants, animals, and microbes
Uploaded: 2023-04-30T10:05:40.000Z
Duration: 1 min 40 s
Channel: JoVE

K12 Standards

Louisiana Student Standards for Science

High School

Life Sciences

from-molecules-to-organisms-structures-and-processes

From Molecules To Organisms: Structures And Processes

HS-LS1-3

Overview of Metabolism

Metabolism can be divided into catabolism and anabolism.
Catabolism is a process where complex food molecules like polysaccharides, lipids, and proteins are broken down into simple molecules, such as sugars, fatty acids, and amino acids.
These simpler molecules are then processed inside a cell via various biochemical pathways to produce ATP, the energy currency of the cell.
For example, starch, a complex carbohydrate, is broken down by digestive enzymes into&#160; glucose, which is then metabolized to produce pyruvate and ATP via glycolysis.
Anabolism is the reverse of catabolism. Here, small and simple precursors use energy from ATP hydrolysis to synthesize complex polymers.
For example, in glycogenesis, glucose monomers are bonded together to form glycogen, an energy storage molecule in animals.&#160;
Since cells need to generate energy to maintain cellular metabolism, it is important to keep an adequate pool of ATP in the cell by modifying rates of ATP producing and utilizing reactions.
Such balance in the cellular metabolism is achieved via various regulatory systems present in the body like the endocrine system, regulatory enzymes, feedback inhibition loops, and modulation of gene expression patterns.

overview of metabolism

Living cells constantly carry out various chemical reactions which are necessary for their proper functioning. These reactions are interlinked to one another via multiple pathways. The collection of these chemical reactions is known as metabolism.
Plant Metabolism
Sunlight, the primary source of energy in plants, is first absorbed by the chlorophyll pigments present in their leaves. Plants then use this energy to carry out photosynthesis, where water is oxidized into oxygen and carbon dioxide is reduced to glucose. Glucose acts as a precursor molecule to synthesize several other metabolites for the growth and survival of the plant. Primary metabolites are chemicals like amino acids and fatty acids, which are essential for the plant&#8217;s growth and development. In contrast, secondary metabolites offer survival advantages to the plant. For example, secondary metabolites like terpenes and phenolics are involved in plant defence against microbes and pests, whereas flavonoids are responsible for flower pigmentation.
Animal Metabolism
All animals need food, water and oxygen to grow and reproduce. Here, oxygen acts as an oxidizing agent and the complex food molecules are broken down or catabolized to produce energy in the form of ATP,&#160; which is later used for the synthesis of necessary macromolecules or anabolism.
Enzymopathy or inborn errors of metabolism are rare genetic disorders in which the body lacks dedicated enzymes to break specific food molecules. Therefore, people with enzymopathy cannot efficiently utilize specific complex food molecules to produce energy. For example, patients with fructose intolerance disorder lack the enzyme aldolase-B required to metabolize fructose. Similarly, patients with galactosemia lack the enzyme galactose-1-phosphate uridyl transferase (GALT) required to metabolize galactose.
Microbial Metabolism
Microbes obtain energy and carbon from both organic as well as inorganic sources using different metabolic pathways. For example, Bacillus can metabolize organic molecules such as starch and cellulose, while Azotobacter and Rhizobium oxidize inorganic molecules such as nitrogen. Some other types of bacteria like Cyanobacteria contain chlorophyll and hence can produce glucose by photosynthesis.

Living cells constantly carry out various chemical reactions which are necessary for their proper functioning. These reactions are interlinked to one ...

Education

JoVE Core

Cell Biology

Unit 1

Introduction to Metabolism

KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS

metabolism in plants, animals, and microbes

Metabolism is the set of chemical reactions that keep living cells working. These reactions are linked through many pathways. Together, they support the normal function of cells in plants, animals, and microbes.

In plants, sunlight is the main energy source. Chlorophyll pigments in the leaves absorb this light. The plant then uses that energy for photosynthesis. During photosynthesis, water is oxidized to oxygen and carbon dioxide is reduced to glucose. Glucose then serves as a starting material for making other metabolites needed for plant growth and survival.

Plant metabolites include primary and secondary metabolites. Primary metabolites, such as amino acids and fatty acids, are essential for growth and development. Secondary metabolites give the plant survival advantages. Terpenes and phenolics help defend against microbes and pests. Flavonoids are involved in flower pigmentation.

Animal metabolism depends on food, water, and oxygen. In this process, oxygen acts as an oxidizing agent. Complex food molecules are broken down, or catabolized, to produce ATP. ATP is then used to build the macromolecules needed for anabolism, the synthesis stage of metabolism.

Some animals can have enzymopathy, also called inborn errors of metabolism. These are rare genetic disorders in which a required enzyme is missing. As a result, the body cannot efficiently break down certain food molecules for energy. For example, fructose intolerance occurs when aldolase-B is lacking, and galactosemia occurs when galactose-1-phosphate uridyl transferase, or GALT, is missing.

Microbes use a wide range of metabolic pathways to obtain energy and carbon. Some, such as Bacillus, break down organic molecules like starch and cellulose. Others, including Azotobacter and Rhizobium, oxidize inorganic molecules such as nitrogen. Some bacteria, like cyanobacteria, contain chlorophyll and can also make glucose by photosynthesis.

Metabolism in Plants, Animals, and Microbes

metabolism-in-plants-animals-and-microbes

Metabolism is the set of chemical reactions that keep living cells working. These reactions are linked through many pathways. Together, they support the normal function of cells in plants, animals, and microbes. In plants, sunlight is the main energy source. Chlorophyll pigments in the leaves absorb this light. The plant then uses that energy for photosynthesis. During photosynthesis, water is oxidized to oxygen and carbon dioxide is reduced to glucose. Glucose then serves as a starting...

carbohydrate metabolism

Carbohydrates, Digestion, and Blood Sugar

Carbohydrates are an important source of energy and a key part of human nutrition. They are made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. One gram of carbohydrate provides four kilo-calories of energy, so carbohydrates are the body’s most efficient instant fuel. Starch makes up about 60% of the carbohydrates people eat. It is broken down by amylase enzymes, but amylase cannot work in the stomach’s acidic environment. That is why starch digestion happens in the mouth and the small intestine. Simple...

glycolysis: preparatory phase

Glycolysis: Energy Investment Steps

Glycolysis begins with energy investment steps in the cytoplasm of both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. It is the first step in cellular metabolism, which is the complete breakdown of glucose to extract energy. In heterotrophic cells, glucose enters by secondary active transport or through GLUT proteins, which are glucose transporter proteins that help glucose diffuse into the cell. The pathway starts with one six-carbon, ring-shaped glucose molecule and ends with two three-carbon molecules...

glycolysis: pay-off phase

Glycolysis: ATP and NADH Output

The pay-off phase of glycolysis turns the two three-carbon sugar molecules into ATP, NADH, and pyruvate. By this stage, the cell has already spent two ATP molecules. The remaining reactions recover that investment and add two more ATP molecules and two high-energy NADH molecules. The sixth step oxidizes glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate, a three-carbon sugar made earlier in glycolysis. High-energy electrons are transferred to NAD+, which becomes NADH. A second phosphate group is then added to form...

fates of pyruvate

Pyruvate Pathways in Fermentation

Pyruvate is a key product of glycolysis and can follow different pathways depending on oxygen availability. During glycolysis, glucose is oxidized to pyruvate, NAD+ is reduced to NADH, and two ATP are made by substrate-level phosphorylation. In aerobic organisms, pyruvate then enters the citric acid cycle, which helps produce the reduced coenzymes NADH and FADH2. These coenzymes are later oxidized in the electron transport chain to make ATP and regenerate NAD+ and FAD. When oxygen is absent,...

role of reduced coenzymes nadh and fadh&#8322;

Electron Carriers in Cellular Energy

Electron carriers help store and move energy during nutrient breakdown. Cells can save released energy by reducing these carriers or by making ATP, the cell’s main energy molecule. These mobile electron carriers bind high-energy electrons and shuttle them between compounds in metabolic pathways. The main carriers discussed here come from the B vitamin group and are nucleotide derivatives. They include nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate, and flavin...

overview of nitrogen metabolism

Nitrogen Cycle in Soil and Plants

Nitrogen moves through soil, plants, animals, and microbes in a cycle that keeps this macronutrient available for life. It is a major part of proteins and nucleic acids, so cells need it to build both amino acids and nucleotides. In nature, nitrogen is recycled from organic compounds and stored in several forms, including ammonia, ammonium ions, nitrate, nitrite, and nitrogen gas. Many of the key steps in this cycle are carried out only by prokaryotes. The largest nitrogen pool in terrestrial...

overview of fatty acid metabolism

Fatty Acids: Energy, Membranes, and Cholesterol

Fatty acids help cells store and use energy, and they also support important cell structures. Lipids are nonpolar and hydrophobic, so they do not mix well with water. Major lipid types include fats and oils, waxes, phospholipids, and steroids. Cells break down fatty acids by beta-oxidation. This process happens in the matrix of the mitochondria and cuts fatty acid chains into two-carbon acetyl groups. CoA picks up these groups to form acetyl CoA, which then enters the citric acid cycle. Extra...

sugars as energy storage molecules

Glucose Storage in Plants and Animals

Glucose storage in plants and animals helps cells manage energy for metabolism. Sugar is a simple carbohydrate, and cells use it because a lot of energy is stored in its bonds. Consumed carbohydrates often come from photosynthesizing organisms, especially plants. Plants make glucose during photosynthesis by using sunlight to convert carbon dioxide into sugar molecules. Because this builds a larger, energy-storing molecule, the process needs an energy input. Glucose can then be stored for later...

fats as energy storage molecules

How Triglycerides Fuel ATP Production

Triglycerides store long-term energy in fats. A triglyceride is built from glycerol and three fatty acids. When the body needs energy, these molecules are broken down first. This breakdown is called lipolysis, and it happens in the cytoplasm by hydrolysis. Lipolysis splits triglycerides into fatty acids and glycerol. The glycerol then enters glycolysis as DHAP, which connects fat breakdown to the cell’s main energy pathway. The fatty acids are then oxidized by beta-oxidation into acetyl-CoA.

regulation of metabolism

How Cells Control Metabolic Enzymes

Cells control metabolic enzymes to match changing needs and conditions. Different cells use different enzymes and energy levels, and those needs can also change within the same cell over time. Stomach cells, fat storage cells, skin cells, blood cells, and nerve cells do not all need the same metabolic activity. A digestive cell also works harder soon after a meal than it does many hours later. As cell needs change, the amount and activity of enzymes change too. Enzymes lower activation energy,...

positive and negative feedback loops

Homeostasis and Body Feedback Control

Homeostasis keeps body conditions in a steady range through feedback control. Animal organs and organ systems constantly adjust to internal and external changes. This balance is called a dynamic equilibrium because the body keeps adapting while still staying within specific ranges. The goal of homeostasis is to stay near a set point, which is the value the body tries to maintain. A change in the internal or external environment is a stimulus. A receptor detects that change and sends a signal...

key terms and concepts

Learn how metabolism works in plants, animals, and microbes, including photosynthesis, ATP production, plant metabolites, and metabolic disorders.

Metabolism in Plants, Animals, and Microbes | JoVE K12

cell biology

JoVE Core Cell Biology illustrates complex cellular processes in easy-to-understand yet comprehensive animated video lessons. This collection focuses on the essential components and functions of cells, including organelles and membranes, cellular transport, and cell energetics. It is complemented by scientist-in-action videos that demonstrate the application of cell biology in real-world research experiments.

Next Generation Science Standards

Life Science

ecosystems-interactions-energy-and-dynamics

Ecosystems: Interactions, Energy, and Dynamics

HS-LS2-5

Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills

Biology

BIO.11

BIO.11.B

Nucleic Acids and Nucleotides

Nucleic acids are the most important macromolecules for the continuity of life. They carry the cell&#39;s genetic blueprint and have instructions for its ...

Nucleic Acid Structure

The pentose sugar in DNA is deoxyribose, while in RNA the pentose sugar is ribose. The difference between the sugars is the presence of the hydroxyl group ...

DNA Base Pairing

Erwin Chargaff&#x2019;s rules on DNA equivalence paved the way for the discovery of base pairing in DNA. Chargaff&#x2019;s rules state that in a ...

From DNA to Protein

The flow of genetic information in cells from DNA to mRNA to protein is described by the central dogma, which states that genes specify the sequence of ...

The DNA Helix

Deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA, is the genetic material responsible for passing traits from generation to generation in all organisms and most viruses. DNA ...

The Central Dogma

The central dogma explains the flow of genetic information from DNA nucleotides to the amino acid sequence of proteins.
RNA is the Missing Link Between ...

Genomic DNA in Prokaryotes

The genome of most prokaryotic organisms consists of double-stranded DNA organized into one circular chromosome in a region of cytoplasm called the ...

Genomic DNA in Eukaryotes

Eukaryotes have large genomes compared to prokaryotes. To fit their genomes into a cell, eukaryotic DNA is packaged extraordinarily tightly inside the ...

Overview

Deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA, is the genetic material responsible for passing traits from generation to generation in all organisms and most ...

DNA Packaging

Overview

Eukaryotes have large genomes compared to prokaryotes. In order to fit their genomes into a cell, eukaryotes must pack their DNA tightly inside ...

RNA Structure

Overview
The basic structure of RNA consists of a five-carbon sugar and one of four nitrogenous bases. Although most RNA is single-stranded, it can form ...

RNA Stability

Intact DNA strands can be found in fossils, while scientists sometimes struggle to keep RNA intact under laboratory conditions. The structural variations ...

pre-mRNA Processing

In eukaryotic cells, transcripts made by RNA polymerase are modified and processed before exiting the nucleus. Unprocessed RNA is called precursor mRNA or ...

Types of RNA

Overview
Three main types of RNA are involved in protein synthesis: messenger RNA (mRNA), transfer RNA (tRNA), and ribosomal RNA (rRNA). These RNAs ...

DNA as a Genetic Template

What is Gene Expression?

A gene is a stretch of DNA that serves as the blueprint for functional RNAs and proteins. Since DNA is comprised&#160; of nucleotides and proteins are ...

Transcription

Transcription is the synthesis of RNA from a DNA sequence by RNA polymerase. It is the first step in producing a protein from a gene sequence. ...

Translation

Translation is the process of synthesizing proteins from the genetic information carried by messenger RNA (mRNA). Following transcription, it constitutes ...

Ribosomes

Ribosomes translate genetic information encoded by messenger RNA (mRNA) into proteins. Both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells have ribosomes. Cells that ...

tRNA Activation

Initiation of Translation

Termination of Translation

What are Cells?

Cell Diversity

The concept of a cell started with microscopic observations of dead cork tissue by Robert Hooke in 1665. Hooke coined the term &#34;cell&#34; based on the ...

Cells of the Epidermis

The epidermis is made of four or five layers of epithelial cells, depending on its location in the body. From deep to superficial, these layers are the ...

Bone Cells and Tissue

Bones contain a relatively small number of cells entrenched in a matrix of organic and inorganic components. Although bone cells compose only a small ...

Gross Anatomy of Skeletal Muscles

The connective tissues play a significant role in arranging the muscle fibers into a hierarchical structure that forms a complete muscle. Consider a ...

Structure of Cardiac Muscles

Cardiac muscle, or myocardium, is a specialized type of muscle found exclusively in the heart. Its unique structural and functional characteristics enable ...

structure-and-organization-of-smooth-muscles

Structure and Organization of Smooth Muscles

In the human body, smooth muscle tissue is found lining the visceral and tubular organs such as the liver, lungs, blood vessels, and respiratory tract.
...

Chromosome Replication

Before a cell can divide, it must accurately replicate all of its chromosomes, including the DNA and its associated histone and non-histone ...

Neurons: The Cell Body and the Dendrites

A typical nerve cell comprises three main components: the cell body, dendrites, and the axon. The cell body, also known as the soma or perikaryon, serves ...

Lampbrush Chromosomes

In 1882, Flemming observed lampbrush chromosomes (LBC) in salamander eggs. Later in 1892, R&#252;ckert observed LBCs in shark egg cells and coined the ...

Neurons: The Axon

The axon is a long, thin extended portion of the neuron that carries impulses from its cell body toward the effector cell.
Axoplasm, the axon&#39;s ...

Polytene Chromosomes

Polytene chromosomes are giant interphase chromosomes with several DNA strands placed side by side. They were discovered in the year 1881 by Balbiani in ...

Nervous Tissue: Neuron Types

Neurons, the fundamental units of the nervous system, can be classified based on both their structural and functional characteristics.
Structurally, ...

Euchromatin

The extent of chromatin compaction can be studied by staining chromatin using specific DNA binding dyes. Under the microscope, the dense-compacted regions ...

Nervous Tissue: Glial Cells

Glial cells or neuroglia are non-neuronal cells in the nervous system that outnumber neurons. These include astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, microglia, and ...

Heterochromatin

Lymphoid Cells and Tissues

Lymphoid cells and lymphoid tissues are the two major components of lymphoid organs.
Lymphoid cells consist of immune system cells such as B and T ...

chromatin-position-affects-gene-expression

Chromatin Position Affects Gene Expression

Chromatin is the massive complex of DNA and proteins packaged inside the nucleus. The complexity of chromatin folding and how it is packaged inside the ...

Two structural features of the DNA molecule provide a basis for the mechanisms of heredity: the four nucleotide bases and its double-stranded nature. The ...

Organization of Genes

Chromosome Structure

A functional eukaryotic chromosome must contain three elements: a centromere, telomeres, and numerous origins of replication.
The centromere is a DNA ...

Construct an explanation based on evidence for how the structure of DNA determines the structure of proteins which carry out the essential functions of life through systems of specialized cells. Emphasis is on the conceptual understanding that DNA sequences determine the amino acid sequence and thus protein structure. Students can produce scientific writing, or presentations, and/or physical models that communicate constructed explanations.

HS-LS1-1

Characteristics of Life

Biology is a natural science that studies life and living organisms, including their structure, function, development, interactions, evolution, ...

https://cloudfront.jove.com/files/media/science-education/science-education-thumbs/10647.jpg

Levels of Organization

Biological organization is the classification of biological structures, ranging from atoms at the bottom of the hierarchy to the Earth&#x27;s biosphere. ...

The Scientific Method

The scientific method is a detailed, empirical problem-solving process used by biologists and other scientists. This iterative approach involves ...

Taxonomy

Taxonomy is the science of defining and naming groups of biological organisms based on shared characteristics. It uses a hierarchy of increasingly ...

Phylogeny

Phylogeny is concerned with the evolutionary diversification of organisms or groups of organisms. A group of organisms with a name is called a taxon ...

Develop and use a model to illustrate the hierarchical organization of interacting systems that provide specific functions within multicellular organisms. Emphasis is on functions at the organism system level such as nutrient uptake, water delivery, or organism movement in response to neural stimuli. An example of an interacting system could be an artery depending on the proper function of elastic tissue and smooth muscle to regulate and deliver the proper amount of blood within the circulatory system.

HS-LS1-2

Regulation of Metabolism

Cellular needs and conditions vary from cell to cell and change within individual cells over time. For example, the required enzymes and energetic demands ...

Positive and Negative Feedback Loops

Animal organs and organ systems constantly adjust to internal and external changes through a process called homeostasis (&#34;steady state&#34;). Examples ...

Functions of Life

Human life is characterized by a variety of functions that are essential for survival and well-being. These functions include metabolism, movement, ...

Requirements for Human Life

The Earth and its atmosphere have provided humans with air, water, and food, but these are not the only requirements for survival. Humans also require a ...

What is Homeostasis?

Maintaining homeostasis requires that the body continuously maintain its internal conditions. Each physiological condition has a particular set point, ...

Negative and Positive Feedback

Homeostatic Imbalance

Homeostasis is the maintenance of a stable internal environment within the body, which is crucial for the proper functioning of cells, tissues, organs, ...

pH Homeostasis

Acid-base homeostasis is essential for maintaining normal physiological activities in humans. The pH of various body fluids is strictly regulated because ...

homeostatic-imbalances-in-body-temperature

Homeostatic Imbalances in Body Temperature

Hyperthermia is an umbrella term for elevated body temperature that occurs when heat production exceeds the body&#39;s ability to dissipate it.
...

Regulation of Food Intake

The hypothalamus releases peptides influencing feeding behavior.
Two hypothalamic neuronal groups participate in this process.
Neuropeptide Y (NPY) and ...

Plan and conduct an investigation to provide evidence that feedback mechanisms maintain homeostasis in living organisms. Examples of investigations could include heart rate responses to exercise, stomate responses to moisture and temperature, root development in response to water levels, or cell response to hypertonic and hypotonic environments.

What is the Cell Cycle?

The cell cycle refers to the sequence of events occurring throughout a typical cell&#8217;s life. In eukaryotic cells, the somatic cell cycle has two ...

Interphase

The cell cycle occurs over approximately 24 hours (in a typical human cell) and in two distinct stages: interphase, which includes three phases of the ...

The Cell Cycle Control System

Positive Regulator Molecules

Inhibition of CDK Activity

S-Cdk Initiates DNA Replication

M-Cdk Drives Transition Into Mitosis

Mitogens and the Cell Cycle

Replicative Cell Senescence

Abnormal Proliferation

cells-coordinate-growth-and-proliferation

Cells Coordinate Growth and Proliferation

Mitosis and Cytokinesis

In eukaryotes, the cell division cycle is divided into distinct, coordinated cellular processes that include cell growth, DNA replication/chromosome ...

Use a model to illustrate the role of the cell cycle and differentiation in producing and maintaining complex organisms. Emphasis is on conceptual understanding that mitosis passes on genetically identical materials via replication, not on the details of each phase in mitosis.

HS-LS1-4

Metabolism in Plants, Animals, and Microbes

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