Name: planet orbits as ellipses
Uploaded: 2025-05-22T09:05:41.000Z
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K12 Standards

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North Carolina K-12 Science Standard Course of Study

9-12

Earth and Environmental Science

Earth's Place in the Universe

ESS.EES.1.1

Kepler's First Law of Planetary Motion

Johannes Kepler stated in his first law that each planet traces an elliptical orbit, with the Sun at one of its foci.
In the elliptical orbit, a planet is closest to the Sun at the perihelion point A and farthest from the Sun when it is at the aphelion point B. The average distance of the planet from the Sun is equal to the semi-major axis of the ellipse.
At perihelion, the planet&#39;s potential energy is lower than at aphelion, since distance rA is smaller than distance rB.
Following the energy conservation principle, the total energy of the planet in a closed orbit is conserved. Therefore, the kinetic energy of the planet at perihelion is higher than at aphelion.
Since the kinetic energy equals half times the product of the planet&#39;s mass and square of its orbital velocity, the planet moves faster in its orbit when it is closer to the Sun at perihelion and slows down when it is away from the Sun.

kepler's first law of planetary motion

In the early 17th century, German astronomer and mathematician Johannes Kepler postulated three laws for the motion of planets in the solar system. He formulated his first two laws based on the observations of his forebears, Nikolaus Copernicus and Tycho Brahe.
Polish astronomer Nikolaus Copernicus put forth a theory that stated a heliocentric model for the solar system. According to this heliocentric theory, all the planets, including Earth, orbit the Sun in circular orbits.
On the other hand, Danish astronomer Tycho Brahe, the employer of Johannes Kepler, had meticulously recorded the position of every planet in detail. For most visible planets, these observations were in accordance with the Copernican heliocentric theory, except for the planet Mars.
While analyzing the Mars data of Tycho Brahe, Johannes Kepler realized that the Copernican theory was accurate except that planets revolve around the Sun in an elliptical orbit rather than circular orbits. This led him to his first law of planetary motion, which states that every planet travels along an ellipse, with the Sun located at one of the ellipse's foci.
An ellipse is an elongated circle. The degree of elongation of an ellipse is expressed using a parameter called eccentricity.
<img alt="Elliptical orbit diagram with perihelion, aphelion, major, and minor axes labeled for study." src="/files/ftp_upload/12754/12754_Figure_1.png" style="text-align: center; height: 500px;" data-altupdatedat="1754904545000" data-alt="Elliptical orbits diagram; perihelion, aphelion, major/minor axis labeled; Kepler's laws concept." />
An axis of an ellipse along the elongation is called the major axis a, and the one perpendicular to it is the minor axis b. Therefore, the eccentricity of an ellipse is expressed as
<img alt="Ellipticity formula \(e=\sqrt{1-\frac{b^2}{a^2}}\) equation used in geometry analysis." src="/files/ftp_upload/12754/12754_Equations_1.png" style="text-align: center; height: 50px;" data-altupdatedat="1754904545000" data-alt="Ellipticity formula, e=&#8730;(1-b&#178;/a&#178;), mathematical equation representing eccentricity." />
Since b &#60; a, the eccentricity of an ellipse is always less than unity. For a circle, a = b, hence the eccentricity of a circle is zero.
The eccentricity of Martian orbit is 0.0935. It is considered to have the most eccentric orbit after Mercury, whose eccentricity is 0.21. Earth's orbit has an eccentricity of 0.0167.
Since planets are in elliptical orbits with the Sun at one of the foci, their radial distances change throughout the year. Their closest distance from the Sun is known as the perigee, while the farther distance is called the apogee.
This text is adapted from<a href="https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-1/pages/13-5-keplers-laws-of-planetary-motion"> Openstax, University Physics Volume 1, Section 13.5 Kepler's Laws of Motion.</a>

In the early 17th century, German astronomer and mathematician Johannes Kepler postulated three laws for the motion of planets in the solar system. He ...

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JoVE Core

Physics

Unit 1

Gravitation

KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS

planet orbits as ellipses

Planet orbits are not perfect circles. Johannes Kepler used planet data from Tycho Brahe to show that each planet follows an ellipse, with the Sun at one focus. This idea came from studying Mars, which did not fit the circular path expected in the Copernican heliocentric model.

Copernicus had proposed that the solar system is heliocentric, meaning the Sun is at the center and the planets, including Earth, move around it. His model treated those paths as circles. Brahe later recorded the positions of the planets in great detail, and most of the visible planets matched the Copernican picture. Mars was the major exception.

An ellipse is an elongated circle. Its longest axis is the major axis, marked a, and the shorter axis across it is the minor axis, marked b. The amount of stretch is called eccentricity. Because b is less than a, the eccentricity of an ellipse is always less than 1, and a circle has an eccentricity of zero because its sides are equal.

Kepler’s orbit model also explains why a planet’s distance from the Sun changes during the year. The closest point is called perigee, and the farthest point is called apogee. Mars has an eccentricity of 0.0935, which is the most eccentric orbit after Mercury at 0.21. Earth’s orbit is much closer to a circle, with an eccentricity of 0.0167.

Planet Orbits as Ellipses

gravitation

Newton’s Law Behind Planet Motion

Newton’s law of gravitation links falling objects, the Moon’s orbit, and planetary motion. Before Newton, many people thought the sky and Earth followed different laws. Kepler later described the three laws of planetary motion, but their connection to a deeper force was still unclear. Isaac Newton made that connection in 1665 to 1666. He showed that the same phenomenon explains why objects fall to Earth and why the Moon moves around Earth. He also found that the Moon’s centripetal acceleration...

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newton's law of gravitation

Newton's Gravity and the Motion of Bodies

Newton's gravity links the fall of objects on Earth with the motion of the Moon and planets. People once thought the downward pull seen near Earth was unique to our planet. Later, Nicolaus Copernicus proposed the heliocentric theory, which placed Earth and the other planets around the Sun, with the Moon orbiting Earth. Isaac Newton connected these motions in the 17th century. He reasoned that the same attraction that keeps the Moon on its path around Earth also makes an apple fall from a tree.

gravitation between spherically symmetric masses

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Gravitational Potential Inside a Shell

Gravitational potential energy for spherically symmetric bodies depends on their masses and the distance between them. The idea is to treat each body as if its mass were concentrated at its center of mass. This makes the calculation easier for high school physics. A spherically symmetric mass can be thought of as many concentric spherical shells. Now place a point mass at a distance r from the center of one shell. Every particle on a given spherical ring is the same distance from that point...

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gravity between spherical bodies

Point-Mass Approximation in Spherical Gravity

Newton’s law of gravitation gives the force between two point masses. For large spherical objects, such as the Earth, the Moon, and other planets, the same law can be used by treating each body as if its mass were concentrated at its center. This idea can be proven by comparing gravitational potential energy. The transcript shows that a hollow sphere of mass M and a point mass m give the same energy result as two extended solid spherical objects. To set up the proof, a tiny ring on the shell...

reduced mass coordinates: isolated two-body problem

reduced-mass-coordinates-isolated-two-body-problem

Center of Mass in the Two-Body Problem

Reduced mass coordinates help simplify the classical two-body problem. In classical mechanics, this problem describes the motion of two interacting bodies under gravity or another central force. The key idea is that the system can be treated like a single-body problem when reduced mass is used. For this description, one body is imagined to move with the reduced mass while the other body is fixed in place with infinite mass. The reduced mass is a property of the two-body system and is defined...

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acceleration due to gravity on earth

Gravity on Earth: Mass, Direction, and Value

Gravity near Earth gives objects a downward acceleration called acceleration due to gravity. It comes from Earth’s gravitational pull and points toward the center of the Earth. Newton’s law of gravitation shows that the gravitational force depends on mass, while Newton’s second law shows that the acceleration produced by a force depends on how that force acts on the object. Because of this relationship, the acceleration due to gravity is independent of an object’s mass. An object and the Earth...

acceleration due to gravity on other planets

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Measuring Gravity on Distant Planets

Gravity near Earth’s surface is measured as acceleration due to gravity. On Earth, students can test it with simple experiments. On other planets, that kind of direct experiment is not possible. Instead, astronomers use observations to find a planet’s gravity. They study how the planet affects nearby objects, especially its satellite. The key idea is that the acceleration depends on the planet’s gravity, not on the object’s mass. To make the calculation, scientists track a satellite’s path...

apparent weight and the earth's rotation

Earth's Spin and Apparent Weight

Earth’s spin changes how weight is measured on the surface. Because the Earth turns once every 24 hours, objects on the surface move in a circle. That motion requires a net centripetal force, which points toward the center of the circle. The north and south poles are the only exception. At the equator, the force that provides this inward pull comes from Earth’s gravity. It is the difference between an object’s true weight and the normal force from the ground. The normal force is the support...

variation in acceleration due to gravity near the earth's surface

variation-in-acceleration-due-to-gravity-near-the-earth-s-surface

How Earth’s Shape Affects Apparent Weight

Apparent weight changes slightly on Earth because of rotation and the planet’s shape. Apparent weight is the weight measured by a spring balance at a location. It is different from true weight, which is the force Earth pulls on an object with. Earth’s rotation reduces apparent weight by adding a centripetal force. Centripetal force is the inward force that keeps an object moving in a circle. The apparent weight equals the true weight minus this force. The difference depends on the square of...

potential energy due to gravitation

Gravitational Binding and Potential Energy

Gravitational potential energy describes how gravity stores energy between two masses. Because gravity is a conservative force, the work needed to move an object between two points depends on the starting and ending positions, not on the path taken. That is why a gravitational potential energy function can be written in terms of spatial coordinates. For a mass bound by gravity to another object, the potential energy is negative near the attracting body and rises toward zero as the distance...

the principle of superposition and the gravitational field

the-principle-of-superposition-and-the-gravitational-field

Adding Gravitational Forces with Superposition

Gravitational forces can be added using the principle of superposition. For objects that are sufficiently far apart, the net gravitational force on a point object is the vector sum of the forces from each mass. This means each force is found first, and then the forces are added as vectors. Superposition is useful because gravity from more than one object can combine in ways that are not always easy to see. One force may be increased or reduced by another force, or the final effect may be a...

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escape velocity

Launching a Satellite Beyond Gravity

Launching a satellite beyond gravity requires enough escape velocity to leave a planet or other body and never return. Escape velocity is the minimum initial speed needed to break free from the gravitational pull of an object that is holding the satellite in orbit or near its surface. For Earth, the idea is often shown with a satellite launched from the ground. The calculation assumes that no energy is lost to friction. In real life, Earth’s atmosphere also slows the satellite down, so the...

circular orbits and critical velocity for satellites

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Orbital Speed and Period in Circular Paths

Orbital speed and period in circular paths explain how the Moon, planets, and satellites stay in motion around larger bodies. The Moon orbits Earth. Earth and the other planets orbit the Sun. The space above our atmosphere also contains many artificial satellites. A circular orbit is the simplest orbit to study. It helps show how an object’s speed and its period, or the time for one full orbit, depend on where it is and what it circles. Nicolaus Copernicus first suggested that Earth and the...

energy of a satellite in a circular orbit

energy-of-a-satellite-in-a-circular-orbit

Satellite Orbits and Energy in Space

Satellite orbits and energy in space depend on altitude, orbit shape, and gravity. Thousands of artificial satellites circle Earth every day at many different distances. Satellites below 1,600 km are in low-Earth orbit, or LEO. Research satellites and Earth observation satellites are usually placed in LEO. They mostly move in elliptical orbits, which are oval-shaped paths. Navigation satellites are placed in medium-Earth orbit, or MEO, which ranges from 2,000 km to 36,000 km above Earth’s...

Planet orbits are not perfect circles. Johannes Kepler used planet data from Tycho Brahe to show that each planet follows an ellipse, with the Sun at one focus. This idea came from studying Mars, which did not fit the circular path expected in the Copernican heliocentric model. Copernicus had proposed that the solar system is heliocentric, meaning the Sun is at the center and the planets, including Earth, move around it. His model treated those paths as circles. Brahe later recorded the...

kepler's second law of planetary motion

Kepler's Equal-Area Planet Motion

Kepler's second law explains how a planet moves faster and slower in its orbit around the Sun. Johannes Kepler, a German astronomer and mathematician in the early 17th century, developed three laws for planetary motion. His first law says that planets travel in elliptical orbits, with the Sun at one focus of the ellipse. Because the planet-Sun distance changes during the orbit, the planet does not move at the same speed all the time. In an elliptical orbit, the total energy of the planet is...

kepler's third law of planetary motion

Kepler’s Planet Distance Law

Kepler’s third law links a planet’s average distance from the Sun to the time it takes to orbit the Sun. This rule gives a clear mathematical relationship between orbital distance and orbital period, which is the time for one full revolution. Johannes Kepler developed this law in the early 17th century after building on the observations of Nicolaus Copernicus and Tycho Brahe. Kepler first formed his first two laws from those earlier observations. He later published the third law of planetary...

tidal forces

How the Moon Shapes Earth’s Tides

Earth’s ocean tides are driven by gravitational tidal forces. Scientists have studied the origin of tides for more than 2000 years, and Newton’s work marked the start of a proper understanding. These same tidal forces also act on other astronomical bodies. They can produce internal heat that leads to volcanic activity on Io, one of Jupiter’s moons, and they can tear apart stars that pass too close to black holes. Newton’s law of gravitation says that gravitational force is inversely...

schwarzschild radius and event horizon

Escape Velocity Limits and Black Holes

Escape velocity helps explain how black holes and event horizons form. It is the minimum speed a projectile needs to leave the surface of an object and eventually escape its gravitational field. In this context, escape velocity does not depend on the mass of the object being launched. The key idea is that no object with finite mass can move faster than the speed of light in a vacuum. When escape velocity is compared with that speed limit, the Schwarzschild radius becomes important. If an...

detection of black holes

How Astronomers Find Black Holes

Black holes are found through indirect astronomical evidence. They were first proposed in the 1920s, but they stayed outside observational astronomy until the 1970s. Their closest known cousins are neutron stars, which are made mostly of packed neutrons and are extremely dense. A neutron star can have the mass of the Sun while its diameter is only a few kilometers. Because of that, the escape velocity from its surface is close to the speed of light. Interest in black holes rose again in the...

principle of equivalence

Weightlessness and Einstein’s Equivalence

Weightlessness and Einstein’s equivalence principle are closely connected in gravity. A person in free fall under gravity, such as someone diving toward Earth from an airplane, would feel completely weightless. A person descending in a lift may feel partially weightless. The principle of equivalence says that an object in a uniform gravitational field and an object accelerating at a constant rate with no gravity are under the same experimental conditions. In other words, no experiment can tell...

space-time curvature and the general theory of relativity

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Einstein’s Gravity and Mercury’s Orbit

Einstein’s theory of gravity explains how space-time affects motion. In 1905, Einstein published his special theory of relativity. It says that no object can travel faster than the speed of light in a vacuum, which is the speed limit of the universe. Special relativity also changed the way scientists think about space and time. Two observers moving relative to each other do not agree on object length or on how time passes. Newton’s laws still work well for many cases, even for objects moving...

key terms and concepts

Learn how Kepler used Mars data to show that planets move in ellipses, not perfect circles, and why eccentricity changes a planet’s distance from the Sun.

Planet Orbits as Ellipses | JoVE K12

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JoVE Core Physics introduces the theory and application of fundamental physics topics, including kinematics, dynamics, fluid mechanics, statics, waves, and acoustics, with concise and easy-to-understand animated videos. Additionally, the scientist-in-action videos demonstrate the application of related concepts in classical and original research experiments performed in today's laboratories worldwide.

ESS.EES.1.2

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Motion and Stability- Forces and Interactions

PS.Phy.2.4

Pennsylvania State Academic Standards

Earth and Space Science

Space Systems

3.3.9-12.A

3.3.9-12.D

Weather and Climate

3.3.9-12.E

Louisiana Student Standards for Science

High School

Earth Science

Earth’s Place In The Universe

HS-ESS1-1

HS-ESS1-2

HS-ESS1-3

HS-ESS1-4

Virginia  Standards of Learning

HIgh School

ES.2

ES.2.b

ES.2.c

PH.3

PH.3.b

Minnesota Academic Standards in Science

2.2.1 9E.2.2.1.1

Arizona Science Standards

HS.E2

HS.E2U1.16

HS+E.E2

HS+E.E2U1.14

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New Jersey Student Learning Standards for Science

Alabama Course of Study Science

9-12.ESS.1.2.a

9-12.ESS.1.2.d

9-12.ESS.1.3

Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills

Astronomy

112.48.c.9.

112.48.c.9.B.

Next Generation Science Standards

Earth’s Place in the Universe

Florida Department of Education

SC.912.E.5

SC.912.E.5.6

SC.912.E.5.10

SC.912.E.5.11

PHYS.5

PHYS.5.H

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South Carolina College and Career Ready Science Standards

Earth and Space Science (ESS)

E-ESS1-4.

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New York State Science Learning Standards

Earth and Space Sciences

HS-ESS1-4.

Georgia Standards of Excellence

SAST1

SAST1.1

Kepler's Second Law of Planetary Motion

In the early 17th century, German astronomer and mathematician Johannes Kepler postulated three laws for the motion of planets in the solar system. His ...

Kepler's Third Law of Planetary Motion

In the early 17th century, German astronomer and mathematician Johannes Kepler postulated three laws for the motion of planets in the solar system. In ...

Detection of Black Holes

Although black holes were theoretically postulated in the 1920s, they remained outside the domain of observational astronomy until the 1970s.
Their ...

Tidal Forces

The origin of Earth&#39;s ocean tides has been a subject of continuous investigation for over 2000 years. However, the work of Newton is considered to be ...

Circular Orbits and Critical Velocity for Satellites

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Gravity between Spherical Bodies

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Use models to illustrate the formation of the solar system.

Uniform Circular Motion

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Gyroscope: Precession

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simple-harmonic-motion-and-uniform-circular-motion

Simple Harmonic Motion and Uniform Circular Motion

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Use mathematics and computational thinking to analyze Earth's motion through space.

Light as Energy

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Nuclear Fusion

The process of converting very light nuclei into heavier nuclei is also accompanied by the conversion of mass into large amounts of energy, a process ...

First Law of Thermodynamics

The First Law of Thermodynamics states that energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transformed. This can be demonstrated within a classic food web ...

Energy Dynamics

The Food Chain
Energy is one of the most important abiotic factors in an ecosystem and organisms in an ecosystem are connected by the flow of energy and ...

Use models to illustrate how the sun produces energy.

ESS.EES.1.3

Radiation: Applications

The average temperature of Earth is the subject of much current discussion. Earth is in radiative contact with both the Sun and dark space; it receives ...

What is Weather?

Overview

Weather refers to the current state of atmospheric conditions at a specific time and place. Weather is temporary and is influenced by the ...

Construct an explanation to infer how incoming solar radiation interacts with Earth systems to support life.

ESS.EES.1.4

Explain how Earth's position relative to the sun influences conditions on Earth.

Planet Orbits as Ellipses

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