Name: stages of cell division in eukaryotes
Uploaded: 2025-05-22T09:05:47.000Z
Duration: 1 min 35 s
Channel: JoVE

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Pennsylvania State Academic Standards

9-12

Life Science

Inheritance and Variation of Traits

3.1.9-12.D

Mitosis and Cytokinesis

Mitosis is a form of cell division where a cell&#39;s genetic material is partitioned between two daughter cells.&#160;
First, during prophase, nucleic chromatin condenses into x-shaped chromosomes composed of sister chromatid pairs attached at centromere junctions.
Concurrently, the centrosomes migrate to opposite cell sides. As they do so, microtubule rods begin to grow from each, forming a web-like spindle apparatus.
Next, the nuclear envelope dissolves during prometaphase and the protein structures, termed&#160; kinetochores, appear on both sides of the centromeres, one for every chromatin.
Once these kinetochores form, extending interior microtubules fasten to them, with each sister chromatid being tethered to a different cell pole.
In&#160; metaphase, the spindle apparatus rearranges the chromosomes so that they are oriented in a fixed row along the cell&#39;s equator.
With anaphase, kinetochore afixed microtubules shorten and sister chromatids are dragged apart. These and other microtubule dynamics also elongate the cell.
During telophase, the spindle apparatus disbands, chromatids loosen, and nuclear envelopes are reformed.
Finally, the cell is cytoplasmically divided by cytokinesis, forming a pair of cells genetically identical to their precursor.

mitosis and cytokinesis

In eukaryotes, the cell division cycle is divided into distinct, coordinated cellular processes that include cell growth, DNA replication/chromosome duplication, chromosome distribution to daughter cells, and finally, cell division. The cell cycle is tightly regulated by its regulatory systems as well as extracellular signals that affect cell proliferation.
The processes of the cell cycle occur over approximately 24 hours (in typical human cells) and in two major distinguishable stages. The first stage is DNA replication, during the S phase of interphase. The second stage is the mitotic (M) phase, which involves the separation of the duplicated chromosomes into two new nuclei (mitosis) and cytoplasmic division (cytokinesis). The two phases are separated by intervals (G1 and G2 gaps), during which the cell prepares for replication and division.
The Process of Mitosis
Mitosis can be divided into five distinct stages&#8212;prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. Cytokinesis, which begins during anaphase or telophase (depending on the cell), is part of the M phase but not part of mitosis.
Prophase
As the cell enters mitosis, its replicated chromosomes begin to condense and become visible as threadlike structures with the aid of proteins known as condensins. The mitotic spindle apparatus begins to form between the centrosomes&#8212;which were duplicated during the S phase&#8212;and migrate to opposite poles of the cell. The spindle is made up of filamentous structures called microtubules that are comprised of tubulin protein monomers. Spindle microtubules start extending towards the condensed chromosomes. The nucleolus, a component of the nucleus that produces ribosomes, vanishes, indicating the impending breakdown of the nucleus.
Prometaphase
During prometaphase, the microtubule filaments from the spindle apparatus continue to grow, and the chromosomes finish condensing. The nuclear envelope completely breaks down, releasing the chromosomes. Some of the microtubules attach to the released chromosomes, binding at a protein structure called the kinetochore that is present on the centromere of each pair of sister chromatids. Spindle microtubules from opposite poles attach to the kinetochores and capture the condensed sister chromatid pairs. Spindle microtubules that do not attach to chromosomes&#8212;polar and astral microtubules&#8212;help push the spindles apart and anchor the spindle poles to the cell membrane.
Metaphase
The spindle microtubules align each pair of the fully condensed sister chromatids along the equator of the cell&#8212;at the metaphase plate. The cell is now ready to divide.
Anaphase
The microtubules from opposite spindle poles, which are attached to the kinetochore structure, shorten and separate the sister chromatids at the centromere. The cohesion proteins that hold the chromatids together now break down. The shortening kinetochore microtubules cause each chromatid of the pair&#8212;now called chromosomes&#8212;to migrate to an opposite pole.
Telophase
Once the chromosomes reach opposite poles of the cell, they decondense and uncoil to form chromatin. The spindle microtubule filaments depolymerize into their tubulin monomers, which are then utilized as cytoskeletal elements in daughter cells. Nuclear envelopes reassemble around each set of chromosomes.
Cytokinesis
During cytokinesis in animal cells, actin filaments form a contractile ring in the plasma membrane to create a cleavage furrow, which eventually pinches the cell into two. In plant cells, vesicles from the Golgi apparatus carrying glucose, enzymes, and structural proteins join to form a new cell plate at the location of the former metaphase plate. The growing cell plate fuses with the plasma membranes on each side, eventually forming a new cell wall that divides the cell into two.
Mitosis is now complete, generating two daughter cells that are identical to the parent cell. In most human cells, mitosis accounts for about one hour of the approximately 24-hour cell cycle.

In eukaryotes, the cell division cycle is divided into distinct, coordinated cellular processes that include cell growth, DNA replication/chromosome ...

Education

JoVE Core

Cell Biology

Unit 1

Cell Division

KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS

stages of cell division in eukaryotes

Cell division in eukaryotes follows a tightly regulated cycle that includes cell growth, DNA replication, chromosome duplication, chromosome distribution to daughter cells, and cell division. Regulatory systems and extracellular signals help control when cells divide. In typical human cells, the cycle takes about 24 hours.

The cycle has two major stages. DNA is copied during the S phase of interphase. The mitotic, or M, phase then separates the duplicated chromosomes into two new nuclei and divides the cytoplasm. G1 and G2 gaps come between these stages and give the cell time to prepare for replication and division.

Mitosis is the part of the M phase that separates the nucleus into two sets of chromosomes. It has five stages: prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. Cytokinesis, the division of the cytoplasm, starts during anaphase or telophase depending on the cell, but it is not part of mitosis.

During prophase, the replicated chromosomes condense and become visible as threadlike structures with the help of condensins, which are proteins that help package chromosomes. The mitotic spindle begins to form between the centrosomes, which were duplicated in S phase, and the centrosomes move to opposite poles of the cell. The spindle is made of microtubules, which are filaments built from tubulin protein monomers, and these microtubules grow toward the chromosomes. The nucleolus disappears, showing that the nucleus is about to break down.

In prometaphase, the chromosomes finish condensing and the nuclear envelope breaks down completely. This releases the chromosomes into the cell. Some spindle microtubules attach to a protein structure called the kinetochore at the centromere of each sister chromatid pair. Microtubules from opposite poles capture the chromatids, while polar and astral microtubules help push the spindle poles apart and anchor them to the cell membrane.

During metaphase, the spindle microtubules line up each pair of fully condensed sister chromatids at the metaphase plate, or the cell equator. This alignment prepares the cell for division. In anaphase, the kinetochore microtubules shorten, the cohesion proteins holding the chromatids together break down, and the sister chromatids separate at the centromere. Each chromatid then moves to an opposite pole and is now considered a chromosome.

In telophase, the chromosomes reach the poles, decondense, and uncoil into chromatin. The spindle microtubules depolymerize into tubulin monomers, which can be used again as cytoskeletal elements in the daughter cells. New nuclear envelopes then form around each set of chromosomes.

Cytokinesis completes cell division in different ways in animal and plant cells. In animal cells, actin filaments form a contractile ring in the plasma membrane and create a cleavage furrow that pinches the cell in two. In plant cells, vesicles from the Golgi apparatus carrying glucose, enzymes, and structural proteins join to form a new cell plate at the former metaphase plate. The cell plate fuses with the plasma membranes and becomes a new cell wall. Mitosis is then complete, producing two daughter cells identical to the parent cell. In most human cells, this process takes about one hour of the full cell cycle.

Stages of Cell Division in Eukaryotes

Cell division in eukaryotes follows a tightly regulated cycle that includes cell growth, DNA replication, chromosome duplication, chromosome distribution to daughter cells, and cell division. Regulatory systems and extracellular signals help control when cells divide. In typical human cells, the cycle takes about 24 hours. The cycle has two major stages. DNA is copied during the S phase of interphase. The mitotic, or M, phase then separates the duplicated chromosomes into two new nuclei and...

chromosome duplication

Chromosome Copying in Cell Division

Chromosome copying is an important step in cell division. Before a cell divides, it must make an exact copy of its chromosomes so each new cell can receive the same genetic information. A chromosome is a DNA-containing structure that carries genes. During duplication, the chromosome is copied into two identical sister chromatids. These copies stay attached until the cell is ready to separate them. This process helps ensure that daughter cells inherit a complete set of chromosomes. Accurate...

cohesins

Cohesins in Sister Chromatid Separation

Cohesins are protein complexes that help hold sister chromatids together after DNA is copied. They play a key role in cell division by keeping the two copies of a chromosome connected until the right time. These proteins act like a link between the sister chromatids. When the cell is ready to separate them, cohesins must be removed or released so each new cell can get one complete set of chromosomes. Cohesins are an important part of chromosome behavior during mitosis and meiosis. Their...

condensins

Condensin Proteins in Chromosome Packing

Condensin proteins help pack DNA into condensed chromosomes during cell division. They are part of the larger set of proteins that organize genetic material so it can be separated correctly when a cell divides. These proteins act by shaping and tightening chromosome structure. This process is important because DNA must be compacted before it can move through the stages of division. Condensins are therefore closely linked to chromosome condensation, the step that makes chromosomes more compact...

the mitotic spindle

How the Mitotic Spindle Guides Cell Division

The mitotic spindle guides chromosome movement during cell division. It is a structure made of microtubules, which are thin protein fibers in the cell. These fibers organize and help separate the genetic material before the cell splits. The spindle forms as the cell prepares to divide. Its fibers attach to chromosomes and line them up so they can be moved apart in an orderly way. This careful organization helps each new cell receive the correct set of chromosomes. The mitotic spindle is a key...

centrosome duplication

Centrosome Duplication in Cell Division

Centrosome duplication is an important step in cell division. The centrosome helps organize the cell’s internal structure, and it must be copied before a cell divides.

spindle assembly

Spindle Formation in Cell Division

Spindle formation in cell division is the process that builds the microtubule-based spindle needed to separate chromosomes. Microtubules are long protein fibers that help move and organize cell parts during division. During this process, microtubules grow and are arranged into a spindle structure around the chromosomes. The spindle forms in a way that supports chromosome movement to opposite sides of the cell. This step is essential for accurate cell division. Spindle formation depends on the...

attachment of sister chromatids

Sister Chromatid Attachment in Mitosis

Sister chromatid attachment in mitosis helps align duplicated chromosomes before they separate. Sister chromatids are the matching copies made after DNA replication. They stay connected until the cell is ready to divide. The attachment step is closely tied to the metaphase plate, the middle of the cell where chromosomes line up. This alignment helps each new cell receive one copy of every chromosome. Proper attachment is an important part of accurate cell division.

forces acting on chromosomes

Chromosome Movement During Cell Division

Chromosome movement during cell division depends on forces that act on the chromosomes. These forces help move the chromosomes into the right position as the cell divides. The transcript focuses on how these forces affect chromosome behavior during division. It highlights the role of the mitotic spindle, which is the structure that helps organize and move chromosomes. The spindle uses force to guide chromosome movement at the right time. Understanding these forces helps explain how...

separation of sister chromatids

Chromatid Pulling in Cell Division

Separation of sister chromatids is a key step in cell division. Sister chromatids are two identical copies of a chromosome that stay attached until the cell is ready to split them apart. Their separation helps each new cell receive the correct genetic material. During this stage, the sister chromatids are pulled to opposite sides of the cell. This movement happens as the cell prepares to divide into two daughter cells. Once the chromatids separate, each side of the cell has a complete set of...

the spindle assembly checkpoint

How Cells Verify Chromosome Spindle Attachment

The spindle assembly checkpoint helps cells verify that chromosomes are attached to the spindle before division continues. It acts as a safety step during cell division and helps prevent errors in chromosome separation. This checkpoint is controlled by kinetochores, which are protein structures on chromosomes that connect to spindle fibers. If a chromosome is not attached correctly, the checkpoint can delay progression until the problem is fixed. Once the attachment is correct, the cell can...

anaphase a and b

Chromosome and Spindle Movement in Anaphase

Anaphase is the stage of cell division when chromosomes move apart. In this phase, sister chromatids separate and travel toward opposite poles of the cell. Chromosome movement in anaphase can happen in two ways. In anaphase A, chromosomes move closer to the poles as the microtubules attached to them shorten. In anaphase B, the spindle poles themselves move farther apart and help stretch the cell. These two movements work together to ensure that the separated chromosomes are pulled to opposite...

anaphase promoting complex

Cell Cycle Control by APC

The anaphase-promoting complex, or APC, helps control cell cycle progression. It acts during cell division to help move the process from one stage to the next. This control is important for proper timing in the cell cycle. APC is a protein complex that works as a regulator. It helps trigger key steps that allow division to continue in an ordered way. By guiding this transition, APC supports normal cell cycle control.

the contractile ring

Cell Division and the Contractile Ring

The contractile ring helps cells divide at the end of cell division. It forms at the cell's center and tightens to split one cell into two. This process is part of cytokinesis, the stage when the cytoplasm divides. The ring is made of actin and myosin, two proteins that can work together to create force. As the ring contracts, it draws the cell membrane inward. This pinch helps separate the two daughter cells. Understanding the contractile ring is important for studying how cells complete...

determining the plane of cell division

Spindle Position and Cell Division Plane

The plane of cell division is set by the position of the spindle during mitosis. Cells use this internal structure to help decide where the cell will split. The result affects how the two daughter cells are arranged after division. This process is important in many developing tissues. It helps explain how cells divide in a controlled direction. A clear plane of division supports proper cell organization as new cells form. The transcript focuses on how the spindle is used to determine that...

the phragmoplast

Phragmoplast in Plant Cell Division

The phragmoplast is a plant cell structure that forms during cell division. It helps guide the final stage of division, when the cell begins to split into two daughter cells. In plant cells, the phragmoplast appears between the two new nuclei. It is part of the process that leads to the formation of a new cell wall. This wall separates the daughter cells after division is complete. The phragmoplast plays an important role in plant cytokinesis, which is the physical division of the cytoplasm.

distribution of cytoplasmic content

Cytoplasmic Content During Cell Division

Cytoplasmic content is distributed as a cell divides. This process helps each new cell receive the materials it needs to function. The cytoplasm includes the fluid and structures inside the cell membrane, but outside the nucleus. During cell division, this content is separated between the two daughter cells. The division must be organized so both cells can continue normal activity after the split. The video focuses on how this distribution occurs as part of cell division. It highlights the...

key terms and concepts

Follow the stages of eukaryotic cell division from DNA replication to mitosis and cytokinesis, including spindle formation, chromosome separation, and cell plate formation.

Stages of Cell Division in Eukaryotes | JoVE K12

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JoVE Core Cell Biology illustrates complex cellular processes in easy-to-understand yet comprehensive animated video lessons. This collection focuses on the essential components and functions of cells, including organelles and membranes, cellular transport, and cell energetics. It is complemented by scientist-in-action videos that demonstrate the application of cell biology in real-world research experiments.

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What is the Cell Cycle?

The cell cycle refers to the sequence of events occurring throughout a typical cell&#8217;s life. In eukaryotic cells, the somatic cell cycle has two ...

Interphase

The cell cycle occurs over approximately 24 hours (in a typical human cell) and in two distinct stages: interphase, which includes three phases of the ...

The Cell Cycle Control System

Positive Regulator Molecules

Inhibition of CDK Activity

Chromosome Duplication

Cohesins

Condensins

The Mitotic Spindle

Centrosome Duplication

Spindle Assembly

Attachment of Sister Chromatids

Forces Acting on Chromosomes

Separation of Sister Chromatids

The Spindle Assembly Checkpoint

Anaphase A and B

Anaphase Promoting Complex

The Contractile Ring

Determining the Plane of Cell Division

The Phragmoplast

Distribution of Cytoplasmic Content

An Introduction to Cell Division

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Students who demonstrate understanding can use a model to illustrate the role of cellular division (mitosis) and differentiation in producing and maintaining complex organisms.  Assessment Boundary: Assessment does not include specific gene control mechanisms or rote memorization of the steps of mitosis.

DNA Packaging

DNA as a Genetic Template

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Organization of Genes

Structure of a Gene

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Chromosome Structure

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Chromosome Replication

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The Nucleosome

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Nucleosome Remodeling

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Chromatin Packaging

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Karyotyping

Proteins: From Genes to Degradation

The DNA Helix

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The Central Dogma

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RNA is the Missing Link Between ...

Mutations

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Genome Size and the Evolution of New Genes

Gene Families

Students who demonstrate understanding can ask questions to clarify relationships about the role of DNA and chromosomes in coding the instructions for characteristic traits passed from parents to offspring. Assessment Boundary: Assessment does not include the phases of meiosis or the biochemical mechanism of specific steps in the process.

3.1.9-12.P

Genomic DNA in Prokaryotes

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Binary Fission

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Genomic DNA in Eukaryotes

Eukaryotes have large genomes compared to prokaryotes. To fit their genomes into a cell, eukaryotic DNA is packaged extraordinarily tightly inside the ...

What is Meiosis?

Meiosis is the process by which diploid cells divide to produce haploid daughter cells. In humans, each diploid cell contains 46 chromosomes, half from ...

Meiosis I

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Meiosis II

Meiosis II is the second and final stage of meiosis. It relies on the haploid cells produced during meiosis I, each of which contain only 23 ...

Crossing Over

Unlike mitosis, meiosis aims for genetic diversity in its creation of haploid gametes. Dividing germ cells first begin this process in prophase I, where ...

Nondisjunction

During meiosis, chromosomes occasionally separate improperly. This occurs due to failure of homologous chromosome separation during meiosis I or failed ...

Students who demonstrate understanding can make and defend a claim based on evidence that inheritable genetic variations may result from (1) new genetic combinations through meiosis, (2) viable errors occurring during replication, and/or (3) mutations caused by environmental factors. Assessment Boundary: Assessment does not include the phases of meiosis or the biochemical mechanism of specific steps in the process.

3.1.9-12.Q

Stages of Cell Division in Eukaryotes

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