Name: hertz's spark gaps and radio waves
Uploaded: 2025-05-22T09:05:53.000Z
Duration: 1 min 10 s
Channel: JoVE

K12 Standards

Tennessee Academic Standards

High School

Physics

waves-and-their-applications-in-technologies-for-information-transfer

Waves and Their Applications in Technologies for Information Transfer

PHYS.PS4.5

Generating Electromagnetic Radiations

Electromagnetic waves are generated by accelerating electrical charges. It can be demonstrated using the experimental apparatus of Heinrich Hertz.
The transmitter consists of an induction coil and two metal spheres separated by a narrow gap. The&#160; receiver is a loop of wire with a small gap.
When a high voltage pulse is applied, the electric field between the spheres ionizes the air and generates a spark.The frequency of the spark depends on the natural frequency of the L-C circuit.
The electric field oscillations create an electromagnetic wave. A spark is generated in the receiver at the resonant frequency.
Replacing the receiver with a metal sheet, standing waves can be generated.
The region between the transmitter and receiver contains a series of nodes and antinodes.
The distance between two consecutive nodes and antinodes is half of the wavelength. So, the wavelength can be estimated.
Knowing the wavelength and frequency, Hertz estimated the speed of the wave which was very close to the speed of light.

generating electromagnetic radiations

The German physicist Heinrich Hertz (1857&#8211;1894) was the first to generate and detect certain types of electromagnetic waves in the laboratory. Starting in 1887, he performed a series of experiments that confirmed the existence of electromagnetic waves and verified that they travel at the speed of light. Hertz used an alternating-current RLC (resistor-inductor-capacitor) circuit that resonated at a known frequency and connected it to a loop of wire. High voltages induced across the gap in the loop produced sparks that were visible evidence of the current in the circuit and helped generate electromagnetic waves. Across the laboratory, Hertz placed another loop attached to another RLC circuit, which could be tuned (like a dial on a radio) to the same resonant frequency as the first and could thus be made to receive electromagnetic waves. The spark was generated in the receiver loop, indicating that electromagnetic waves travel toward the receiver loop. Hertz also studied the reflection, refraction, and interference patterns of electromagnetic waves, confirming their wave characteristics. Hertz was able to determine the wavelengths from the interference patterns, and by knowing their frequencies, the propagation speed was calculated using the equation v = f&#955;. Hertz was thus able to prove that electromagnetic waves travel at the speed of light. The SI unit for frequency, the Hertz (1 Hz = 1 cycle/second), is named in his honor.

The German physicist Heinrich Hertz (1857&#8211;1894) was the first to generate and detect certain types of electromagnetic waves in the laboratory. ...

Education

JoVE Core

Unit 1

Electromagnetic Waves

KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS

hertz's spark gaps and radio waves

Heinrich Hertz used sparks and tuned circuits to show that electromagnetic waves could be produced in the lab. Starting in 1887, the German physicist ran experiments that confirmed electromagnetic waves exist and travel at the speed of light.

Hertz built an alternating-current RLC circuit. RLC stands for resistor, inductor, and capacitor. The circuit was set to a known resonant frequency and connected to a loop of wire. High voltage across the gap in the loop created sparks. Those sparks gave visible evidence of current in the circuit and helped generate electromagnetic waves.

Across the laboratory, Hertz placed a second loop with another RLC circuit. He tuned it to the same resonant frequency as the first circuit, much like tuning a radio dial. That receiver loop could pick up the electromagnetic waves, and a spark appeared in it. The spark showed that the waves were traveling toward the receiver loop.

Hertz also studied reflection, refraction, and interference in electromagnetic waves. These patterns confirmed that the waves behaved like other waves. From the interference patterns, he found the wavelengths. With the frequencies, he calculated the wave speed using v = fλ and showed that it matched the speed of light. The SI unit of frequency, the hertz, is named after him. One hertz equals one cycle per second.

Hertz's Spark Gaps and Radio Waves

electromagnetic waves

Maxwell’s Equations Behind EM Waves

Maxwell’s equations explain how electric and magnetic fields work together to create electromagnetic waves. James Clerk Maxwell brought together the ideas of Oersted, Coulomb, Gauss, and Faraday and built a single theory of electromagnetism. Together with the Lorentz force law, his equations describe the laws of electricity and magnetism. A key part of Maxwell’s work is the symmetry in the equations. Faraday’s law shows that a changing magnetic field produces an electric field. Maxwell added...

Heinrich Hertz used sparks and tuned circuits to show that electromagnetic waves could be produced in the lab. Starting in 1887, the German physicist ran experiments that confirmed electromagnetic waves exist and travel at the speed of light. Hertz built an alternating-current RLC circuit. RLC stands for resistor, inductor, and capacitor. The circuit was set to a known resonant frequency and connected to a loop of wire. High voltage across the gap in the loop created sparks. Those sparks gave...

the electromagnetic spectrum

Electromagnetic Waves in Everyday Technology

Electromagnetic waves are grouped by wavelength and frequency. This set of waves is called the electromagnetic spectrum. It includes radio waves, microwaves, infrared, visible light, X-rays, and gamma rays. Radio waves have wavelengths from millimeters to kilometers. They are often used for audio communication, such as radios. In many cases, they come from alternating current in the wires of a broadcast antenna. Radio waves also carry AM and FM radio, cellular phone signals, and TV signals. <br...

electromagnetic wave equation

How Maxwell Linked Light to Waves

Maxwell's equations show how electric and magnetic fields behave in a vacuum, or empty space. They are written as differential equations and describe fields created by source charges, whether the charges are still or moving. These fields also act on a test charge, and its motion can be found with the right boundary conditions. The key question in empty space is what happens when there are no source charges. In the vacuum form of Maxwell's four equations, the first-order partial differential...

plane electromagnetic waves i

Transverse Fields in Electromagnetic Waves

Electromagnetic waves are made of electric and magnetic fields that move through space together. Maxwell's equations predict these waves, and they can travel in free space without a medium. The electric field acts on a stationary charge, while the magnetic field acts on a moving charge. For a wave traveling along the x-axis, the fields are written as Ey(x, t) and Bz(x, t). In free space, there are no free charges or currents, so the charge enclosed and current terms in Maxwell's equations are...

plane electromagnetic waves ii

Faraday’s Law in a Plane Wave

Faraday’s law can be used to link the electric and magnetic fields in a plane electromagnetic wave. Here, the wavefront moves in the x-direction at a constant speed. The goal is to show how the field strengths must be related for the wave to stay consistent with Faraday’s law. To apply the law, a rectangle of width a is placed with its area vector in the positive z-direction. The line integral is taken counterclockwise around the rectangle. One side lies outside the wavefront, so the electric...

propagation speed of electromagnetic waves

propagation-speed-of-electromagnetic-waves

Maxwell’s Equations and Light Speed

Electromagnetic waves follow Ampere’s law when there is no conduction current. A plane wavefront moves in the positive x-direction. To analyze it, a rectangle is placed in the xz-plane with its area vector pointing in the positive y-direction. The line integral around the rectangle is taken counterclockwise. The magnetic field is zero on some sides and perpendicular on others. It is parallel to one side, and that side gives a non-zero contribution to the integral. Because the left side of...

electromagnetic waves in matter

How Light Slows in Materials

Electromagnetic waves can travel through matter as well as through vacuum. Light is one example. It can move through air, water, or glass. When an electromagnetic wave passes through a dielectric medium, the equations that describe it change. In Ampere's law, the permittivity of free space, ε0, is replaced by the permittivity of the dielectric, ε. The vacuum permeability, μ0, is also replaced by the permeability of the medium, μ. The wave speed c in vacuum is then replaced by a lower speed, v,...

energy carried by electromagnetic waves

How EM Waves Transfer Energy

Electromagnetic waves transfer energy through their electric and magnetic fields. This energy can be easy to notice, like the warmth from the summer sun, or harder to feel, like the energy in gamma rays that can damage living cells. The fields in an electromagnetic wave can exert forces on charges in a system. They can move those charges and do work on them. Even if a wave is not absorbed right away, it still carries energy away from its source. If some of the wave energy is absorbed, the...

intensity of electromagnetic waves

Poynting Vector and Light Intensity

The Poynting vector describes the energy flux of an electromagnetic wave. It tells how much energy passes through a unit area in a unit time at a specific moment. For a plane electromagnetic wave moving along the x-axis, the energy flux depends on the peak electric field E0 and the peak magnetic field B0. For high-frequency waves, the energy flux changes very quickly with time. Visible light has a frequency on the order of 10^14 Hz, so its energy flux varies too fast to track directly. Most...

momentum and radiation pressure

Radiation Pressure in Light and Comets

Radiation pressure is the force that electromagnetic waves can exert on matter. It appears because light carries momentum, so an object that absorbs a wave feels a push in the direction the wave travels. This same force helps explain why sunlight can affect small particles in space. Maxwell predicted radiation pressure, and Nichols and Hull confirmed it in 1903. They used a torsion balance with mirrors suspended from a fiber inside a glass container. When they shone light on one mirror, the...

radiation pressure: problem solving

Radiation Pressure in Light and Space

Radiation pressure is the push that light can exert on matter. When an electromagnetic wave is completely absorbed by a surface, its energy density is transferred as momentum to that surface. The rate of momentum transfer on a surface perpendicular to the wave gives the force, and the force per unit area is the radiation pressure. A perfectly absorbing surface receives this pressure directly from the incoming wave. If the surface is perfectly reflecting, such as a metal surface, and the light...

standing electromagnetic waves

Electromagnetic Wave Reflection at Conductors

Electromagnetic waves can reflect from a conductor or a dielectric. When the reflected wave combines with the incoming wave, the result is a standing electromagnetic wave. This is similar to the standing waves formed on a stretched string. To see how this happens, consider a perfect conductor placed in the yz-plane. A linearly polarized electromagnetic wave moving in the negative x-direction strikes the surface. The electric field cannot have a component parallel to the surface of a perfect...

standing waves in a cavity

Electromagnetic Modes in a Microwave Cavity

Electromagnetic waves can form standing patterns inside a cavity. Household microwaves and lasers are common examples of this effect. When two conducting metal plates are placed parallel at the nodal planes, they create a space where standing waves can exist. The cavity between the plates works like a stretched string fixed at x = 0 and x = L. The distance L must be an integer multiple of half a wavelength. The wavelengths that meet this condition have matching frequencies, and each frequency,...

key terms and concepts

Learn how Heinrich Hertz used spark gaps, tuned RLC circuits, and interference patterns to prove electromagnetic waves travel at the speed of light.

Hertz's Spark Gaps and Radio Waves | JoVE K12

physics

JoVE Core Physics introduces the theory and application of fundamental physics topics, including kinematics, dynamics, fluid mechanics, statics, waves, and acoustics, with concise and easy-to-understand animated videos. Additionally, the scientist-in-action videos demonstrate the application of related concepts in classical and original research experiments performed in today's laboratories worldwide.

Chemistry

CHEM1.PS4.1

new-jersey-student-learning-standards-for-science

New Jersey Student Learning Standards for Science

Physical Science

HS-PS4-3

HS-PS4-5

Alabama Course of Study Science

9-12

9-12.P.3.7.c

Next Generation Science Standards

HS-PS4-1

south-carolina-college-and-career-ready-science-standards

South Carolina College and Career Ready Science Standards

C-PS4-5

P-PS4-2

P-PS4-3

P-PS4-5

Earth and Space Science (ESS)

Earth’s Place in the Universe

E-ESS1-2.

Travelling Waves

A wave is a disturbance that propagates from its source, repeating itself periodically, and is typically associated with simple harmonic motion. ...

Wave Parameters

The simplest mechanical waves are associated with simple harmonic motion and repeat themselves for several cycles. These simple harmonic waves can be ...

Equations of Wave Motion

Mathematically, the motion of a wave can be studied using a wavefunction. Consider a string oscillating up and down in simple harmonic motion, having a ...

Graphing the Wave Function

Consider the wave equation for a sinusoidal wave moving in the positive x-direction. The wave equation is a function of both position and time. From the ...

/files/media/science-education/science-education-thumbs/14721.jpg

Velocity and Acceleration of a Wave

A wave propagates through a medium with a constant speed, known as a wave velocity. It is different from the speed of the particles of the medium, which ...

Speed of a Transverse Wave

The speed of a wave depends on the characteristics of the medium. For example, in the case of a guitar, the strings vibrate to produce the sound. The ...

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problem-solving-tuning-of-a-guitar-string

Problem-Solving: Tuning of a Guitar String

In the case of stringed instruments like the guitar, the elastic property that determines the speed of the sound produced is its linear mass density or ...

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Kinetic and Potential Energy of a Wave

All forms of waves carry energy; this is directly visualized in nature. For instance, the waves of earthquakes are so intense that they can shake huge ...

Energy and Power of a Wave

The total energy associated with a wavelength is the sum of the potential energy and the kinetic energy. The average rate of energy transfer associated ...

Interference and Superposition of Waves

When two waves of the same nature occur in the same region simultaneously, they result in interference. Interference of waves implies that the net effect ...

Know wave parameters (i.e. velocity, period, amplitude, frequency, angular frequency) as well as how these quantities are defined in the cases of longitudinal and transverse waves.    Know wave parameters (i.e. velocity, period, amplitude, frequency, angular frequency) as well as how these quantities are defined in the cases of longitudinal and transverse waves.  EXPLANATION: Standard 4.PS4.1 is a student’s introduction to waves. At this time, students address the properties of amplitude, wavelength and direction of a wave and principles of superposition of waves, but not by name. In 8.PS4.1, students revisit the topic adding frequency to their models and beginning to consider wave speed, but without mentioning factors affecting the speed of the waves. PHYS.PS2.3 includes discussion of rotational motion which can pair with discussions of simple harmonic motion to clarify angular velocity and angular speed. Discussions regarding the origin of waves can fully develop these ideas.

PHYS.PS4.1

Speed of Sound in Solids and Liquids

Most solids and liquids are incompressible&#8212;their densities remain constant throughout. In the presence of an external force, the molecules tend to ...

Speed of Sound in Gases

The speed of sound in a gaseous medium depends on various factors. Since gases constitute molecules that are free to move, they are highly compressible. ...

Deriving the Speed of Sound in a Liquid

As with waves on a string, the speed of sound or a mechanical wave in a fluid depends on the fluid&#39;s elastic modulus and inertia. The two relevant ...

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Propagation Speed of Electromagnetic Waves

Electromagnetic waves are consistent with Ampere&#39;s law. Assuming there is no conduction current Ampere&#39;s law is given as:


Consider a plane ...

Electromagnetic Waves in Matter

Electromagnetic waves can travel in the vacuum as well as in matter. For example light, which is an electromagnetic wave, can travel through air, water, ...

Simple Harmonic Motion

Simple harmonic motion is the name given to oscillatory motion for a system where the net force can be described by Hooke&#39;s law. If the net force can ...

/files/media/science-education/science-education-thumbs/12762.jpg

characteristics-of-simple-harmonic-motion

Characteristics of Simple Harmonic Motion

The key characteristic of the simple harmonic motion is that the acceleration of the system and, therefore, the net force are proportional to the ...

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oscillations-about-an-equilibrium-position

Oscillations about an Equilibrium Position

Stability is an important concept in oscillation. If an equilibrium point is stable, a slight disturbance of an object that is initially at the stable ...

Energy in Simple Harmonic Motion

To determine the energy of a simple harmonic oscillator, consider all the forms of energy it can have during its simple harmonic motion. According to ...

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Frequency of Spring-Mass System

One interesting characteristic of the simple harmonic motion (SHM) of an object attached to a spring is that the angular frequency, and the period and ...

/files/media/science-education/science-education-thumbs/14718.jpg

Describe parameters of a medium that affect the propagation of a sound wave through it. Describe parameters of a medium that affect the propagation of a sound wave through it. EXPLANATION: The focus of this discussion should be properties of the medium, specifically the density of the material. The density becomes a factor in optics and considering transmission of electromagnetic waves. Students can be led to make their descriptions by experimenting with coiled springs stretched to varying lengths. The topic of linear mass density can be used to explore analogous properties in the air.

PHYS.PS4.2

Reflection of Waves

When a wave travels from one medium to another, it gets reflected at the boundary of the second medium. A common example of this is when a person yells at ...

Propagation of Waves

When a wave propagates from one medium to another, part of it may get reflected in the first medium, and part of it may get transmitted to the second ...

Standing Waves

Sometimes waves do not seem to move; rather, they just vibrate in place. Unmoving waves can be seen on the surface of a glass of milk kept in a ...

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Modes of Standing Waves - I

A close look at earthquakes provides evidence for the conditions appropriate for resonance, standing waves, and constructive and destructive interference. ...

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Modes of Standing Waves: II

The starting point for expressing the modes of standing waves is understanding the boundary conditions that the waves must follow. The boundary conditions ...

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Understand that the reflection, refraction, and transmission of waves at an interference between two media can be modeled on the basis of the characteristics of specific wave parameters and parameters of the medium.  Understand that the reflection, refraction, and transmission of waves at an interference between two media can be modeled on the basis of the characteristics of specific wave parameters and parameters of the medium. EXPLANATION: The focus of this standard is on developing an understanding for the behavior of waves at a boundary. To demonstrate these principles, it is suggested that students create waves on a coiled spring or string and send these waves towards either a free or fixed end or through a different weight of string. For instance, wave can be created in a section of a lighter string then transmitted towards a point where that string terminates into a heavier segment of string. In doing so, it is possible to observe the effects on wave amplitude and a discussion of energy differences. Students should extend their observations of these mechanical waves to wave behaviors at other scales.

PHYS.PS4.3

Sound Waves: Interference

Sound waves can be modeled either as longitudinal waves, wherein the molecules of the medium oscillate around an equilibrium position, or as pressure ...

Interference: Path Lengths

Consider two sources of sound, that may or may not be in phase, emitting waves at a single frequency, and consider the frequencies to be the same.
Two ...

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Sound Waves: Resonance

Resonance is produced depending on the boundary conditions imposed on a wave. Resonance can be produced in a string under tension with symmetrical ...

Beats

The study of music provides many examples of the superposition of waves and the constructive and destructive interference that occurs. Very few examples ...

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Communicate scientific and technical information about how the principle of superposition explains the resonance and harmonic phenomena in air columns on strings and common sound devices. Communicate scientific and technical information about how the principle of superposition explains the resonance and harmonic phenomena in air columns on strings and common sound devices. EXPLANATION:  In 4.PS4.1, students examine the effects of superposition of waves, but do not explore the behavior of waves at boundaries. Building on 4.PS4.3, the behavior of a wave at a free or fixed boundaries can create patterns where successive waves produced by a source interact with those reflected off a boundary. Discussions should include general development of the idea of harmonics. Once established, this topic can be extended to the specific function of stringed instruments such as guitars of simple open or closed tubes. The phenomena of resonance can be produced using a tuning fork held above a section of rigid tubing which is lowered or lifted into a pail of water. Resonance can be heard clearly at multiple points, providing an opportunity to model the source of resonance and relate the resonance points to the wavelength of the wave produced. The phenomenon of beats can be used to provide an introduction to this topic as it too is an audible phenomenon. Quick demonstrations of beats can be performed without tuning forks using multiple open windows in a browser simultaneously playing different frequencies.

PHYS.PS4.4

James Clerk Maxwell formulated a single theory combining all the electric and magnetic effects scientists knew during that time, calling the phenomena his ...

The Electromagnetic Spectrum

Electromagnetic waves are categorized according to their wavelengths and frequencies, giving the electromagnetic spectrum. These waves are classified as ...

Electromagnetic Wave Equation

Maxwell&#39;s equations for electromagnetic fields are related to source charges, either static or moving. These fields act on a test charge, whose ...

Anatomy of the Eyeball

The eyeball is a hollow fluid-filled structure composed of three layers&#8212;the fibrous, vascular, and inner layers.
The superficial fibrous layer has ...

Accessory Structures of the Eye

The accessory structures of the eyes protect and support the eye but are not directly involved in vision.&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;
Eyebrows, ...

Focusing of Light in the Eye

In a normal human eye, as light rays enter, they bend at the cornea, and the lens, to form an inverted image on the retina. The extent to which rays ...

Evaluate the characteristics of the electromagnetic spectrum by communicating the similarities and differences among the different bands. Research and determine methods and devices used to measure these characteristics. Evaluate the characteristics of the electromagnetic spectrum by communicating the similarities and differences among the different bands. Research and determine methods and devices used to measure these characteristics. EXPLANATION: The visible portion of the electromagnetic spectrum will be familiar to students, as will the ideas of x-rays, microwaves, and radiowaves. However, students often struggle to see these phenomena as multiple manifestations of the same principles. It may be beneficial to relate these discussions to the physiology of the human eye, specifically the function of the rhodopsin photopigment. As a demonstration: the light bulbs on the front of remote controls emit light outside of the visible spectrum; however, inexpensive cell phone cameras lack IR filters (as well as some front facing cameras on more current cell phones). Rendering the IR light visible can help student to understand that many devices function by capturing the energy of electromagnetic waves. An additional option would be the creation of a crystal radio using a germanium diode.

Light as Energy

The energy required to carry out photosynthesis is light&#8212; typically electromagnetic radiation from the sun. The range of all possible wavelengths is ...

dual-nature-of-electromagnetic-em-radiation

Dual Nature of Electromagnetic (EM) Radiation

Electromagnetic (EM) radiation consists of electric and magnetic field components oscillating in planes perpendicular to each other and mutually ...

interaction-of-em-radiation-with-matter-spectroscopy

Interaction of EM Radiation with Matter: Spectroscopy

Electromagnetic (EM) radiation can be considered an oscillating electric and magnetic field propagating through a medium that can interact with matter in ...

Plan and conduct controlled scientific investigations to construct explanations of light’s behavior (reflection, refraction, transmission, interference) including the use of ray diagrams. Plan and conduct controlled scientific investigations to construct explanations of light’s behavior (reflection, refraction, transmission, interference) including the use of ray diagrams. EXPLANATION:  In PHYS.PS4.3 students examine the behaviors of mechanical waves moving through a medium. Though the terminology in this standard is comparable, this standard focuses on optics of light. Students should work with lenses and mirrors to build an understanding of the behaviors of light as it interacts with surfaces (reflection, refraction, transmission). In 4.PS4.1 and PHYS.PS4.1, students investigated interference patterns with mechanical waves. Using a pair of speakers and an online tone/frequency generator, it is possible to demonstrate that sound waves, like mechanical waves, can interfere with each other. In such a demonstration, students are able to hear variations in the volume of the sound as they walk in a straight line across the field of sound created by the speakers.

PHYS.PS4.6

The Wave Nature of Light

The nature of light has been a subject of inquiry since antiquity. In the seventeenth century, Isaac Newton performed experiments with lenses and prisms ...

The electromagnetic spectrum consists of all the types of electromagnetic radiation arranged according to their frequency and wavelength. Each of the ...

Interference and Diffraction

Interference is a characteristic phenomenon exhibited by waves. When two electromagnetic waves interact with their peaks and troughs coinciding, a ...

Photoelectric Effect

When light of a particular wavelength strikes a metal surface, electrons are emitted. This is called the photoelectric effect. The minimum frequency of ...

Evaluate the claims, evidence, and reasoning behind the idea that electromagnetic radiation can be described either by a wave model or a particle model. Evaluate the claims, evidence, and reasoning behind the idea that electromagnetic radiation can be described either by a wave model or a particle model. EXPLANATION:  Most students willingly accept the particle behavior of light. As early as first grade, students have experimented with the behavior of light and observed that shadows can be created if some of the particles of light are blocked. Introductory explanations of the photoelectric effect can provide more advanced evidence for the particle behavior. Properties of wave behavior can be demonstrated by observing interference patterns in Young’s double slit experiment. Simple models using strips of paper to represent waves can provide a more tangible experience to understand the interference phenomena.

PHYS.PS4.7

Signal and System

Signals are sets of data or information.
One-dimensional signals include single-variable functions, such as the variations in air pressure over time in ...

Obtain information to construct explanations on how waves are used to produce, transmit, and capture signals and store and interpret information.  Obtain information to construct explanations on how waves are used to produce, transmit, and capture signals and store and interpret information. EXPLANATION:  In 8.PS4.3 students are introduced to the use of waves in communication systems. Further development of these discussions might include a distinction between the differences between analog and digital signals and necessity for digital signals in communication. Additionally, waves can be used for detection in x-rays or ultrasound. Information that is digitized can be stored with very little loss to the quality of the data itself.

PHYS.PS4.8

Hertz's Spark Gaps and Radio Waves

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