Name: x-ray use in medical diagnosis
Uploaded: 2023-06-23T15:38:43.000Z
Duration: 1 min 24 s
Channel: JoVE

K12 Standards

Tennessee Academic Standards

High School

Physics

waves-and-their-applications-in-technologies-for-information-transfer

Waves and Their Applications in Technologies for Information Transfer

PHYS.PS4.8

X-ray Imaging

X-ray imaging is a common diagnostic imaging technique. It uses X-rays - which are high-energy electromagnetic radiations that pass through the human body, to produce a negative-type image of internal body structures.
The resulting image is called a radiograph - shadows of the rays on a digital or film medium. Radiation dose and exposure time are monitored to avoid radiation induced&#160; sickness.
X-rays passing through the body are differentially absorbed depending on the tissue density. Dense structures like bones appear white, as the rays cannot pass through them; therefore, they are radiopaque. Soft tissues like muscles, and organs like the liver and stomach are less dense; since they allow more rays to pass through, they appear in shades of gray. Air that has the lowest radiopacity appears black.
X-ray imaging can detect bone fractures, dental problems, tumors, and certain infections.
However, this technique allows only two-dimensional image capture. Further, it poorly differentiates structures with the same densities, these require better imaging techniques like computed tomography or MRI.

x-ray imaging

German physicist Wilhelm R&#246;ntgen (1845&#8211;1923) was experimenting with electrical current when he discovered that a mysterious and invisible &#34;ray&#34; would pass through his flesh but leave an outline of his bones on a screen coated with a metal compound. In 1895, R&#246;ntgen made the first durable record of the internal parts of a living human: an &#34;X-ray&#34; image (as it came to be called) of his wife&#8217;s hand. Scientists worldwide quickly began their own experiments with X-rays, and by 1900, X-ray was widely used to detect various injuries and diseases. In 1901, R&#246;ntgen was awarded the first Nobel Prize for physics for his work in this field.
An X-ray is a form of high-energy electromagnetic radiation with a short wavelength capable of penetrating solids and ionizing gases. X-rays are emitted from an X-ray generator and directed toward a specially treated metallic plate placed behind the patient&#39;s body. As the beam of radiation passes through the patient, it forms shadows of tissues and structures inside the body on the X-ray plate. X-rays are slightly impeded by soft tissues, which show up as gray on the X-ray plate, whereas hard tissues, such as bone, essentially block the rays, producing a light-toned &#34;shadow.&#34; Thus, X-rays are best used to visualize rigid body structures such as teeth and bones. A contrast medium, like a radiopaque barium solution, can be ingested to help visualize soft tissues of the upper digestive tract to show the contours of the stomach and intestine.
Like many other high-energy radiations, X-rays are capable of damaging cells and causing mutations that can lead to cancer. Despite their widespread use, this danger of excessive exposure to X-rays was not fully appreciated for many years. Today, the impact of radiation on patients and operators is attenuated by proper shielding and limiting exposure.
Refinements and enhancements of X-ray techniques have continued throughout the twentieth and twenty-first centuries. Although often supplanted by more sophisticated imaging techniques, the X-ray remains a standard in medical imaging, especially for viewing fractures and dentistry.
This text is adapted from <a href="https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology/pages/1-7-medical-imaging">Openstax, Anatomy and Physiology, Section 1.7: Medical Imaging</a>

German physicist Wilhelm R&#246;ntgen (1845&#8211;1923) was experimenting with electrical current when he discovered that a mysterious and invisible ...

Education

JoVE Core

Anatomy and Physiology

Unit 1

Diagnostic Imaging Techniques

KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS

x-ray use in medical diagnosis

X-rays are a standard tool in medical diagnosis. They help doctors see bones, teeth, and some soft tissues without surgery. The first X-ray image showed Wilhelm Röntgen’s wife’s hand, and it opened a new way to look inside the body.

Wilhelm Röntgen, a German physicist, discovered X-rays in 1895 while studying electrical current. He found that an invisible ray could pass through flesh but leave the bones outlined on a screen coated with a metal compound. His work led to the first durable record of internal body parts in a living person, and he received the first Nobel Prize in physics in 1901.

An X-ray is a form of high-energy electromagnetic radiation with a short wavelength. It can pass through solids and ionize gases. In medical imaging, an X-ray generator sends the beam toward a specially treated metallic plate behind the patient. As the radiation passes through the body, it creates shadows of internal structures on the plate.

Different body tissues block X-rays in different ways. Soft tissues slow the rays only a little, so they appear gray on the image. Hard tissues such as bone block the rays much more, so they create a light-toned shadow. Because of this contrast, X-rays work especially well for bones, teeth, and fractures.

Doctors can also use a contrast medium, such as a radiopaque barium solution, to show soft tissues in the upper digestive tract. This helps outline the stomach and intestine. X-rays are still widely used, even though other imaging methods are sometimes more advanced.

X-rays can damage cells and cause mutations that may lead to cancer. For many years, this risk was not fully understood. Today, shielding and limited exposure help reduce the impact on patients and operators. X-ray techniques have continued to improve, and the method remains a common part of medical care and dentistry.

X-Ray Use in Medical Diagnosis

X-rays are a standard tool in medical diagnosis. They help doctors see bones, teeth, and some soft tissues without surgery. The first X-ray image showed Wilhelm Röntgen’s wife’s hand, and it opened a new way to look inside the body. Wilhelm Röntgen, a German physicist, discovered X-rays in 1895 while studying electrical current. He found that an invisible ray could pass through flesh but leave the bones outlined on a screen coated with a metal compound. His work led to the first durable record...

computed tomography

CT Scans for Body Slices

Computed tomography, or CT, creates detailed body slices using X-rays and computers. It is a non-invasive imaging method that helps reveal fine details inside the body. The word tomography means imaging by sections. CT was developed in the 1970s. It works by measuring how X-rays pass through the body and are absorbed or reflected at different levels. During a scan, the patient lies on a motorized platform while a computerized axial tomography, or CAT, scanner rotates 360 degrees around the...

magnetic resonance imaging

MRI Scans: How Body Signals Are Formed

Magnetic resonance imaging, or MRI, is a noninvasive way to create detailed medical images. It uses strong magnetic fields and radio waves. When the body is exposed to them, it can emit radio signals that are used to build the image. MRI became especially important after researchers saw that cancerous tissue gave off signals different from normal tissue. Raymond Damadian identified this difference in 1970 and later applied for a patent for the first MRI scanner used in clinical care. Early...

positron emission tomography

PET Scans and How They Work

PET scans use radiopharmaceuticals to show how the body is working. PET, or positron emission tomography, is a medical imaging method that depends on short-lived radiation from these compounds. It gives doctors a way to see tissue activity instead of only body structure. A PET scan starts with a positron-emitting radioisotope. This isotope is made in a cyclotron and then attached to a substance used by the body part being studied. The tagged compound is called a radiotracer. It can be given by...

ultrasonography

Ultrasonography in Medical Imaging

Ultrasonography in medical imaging uses high-frequency sound waves to create images of internal body structures. It is a safe, non-invasive procedure. It does not use ionizing radiation, which is one reason it is widely used in medicine. During an ultrasound exam, a handheld transducer is placed on the skin. A transducer is the device that sends sound waves into the body. When the waves hit different tissues, they bounce back as echoes. The transducer catches those echoes and sends them to a...

overview of microscopy techniques

How Microscopes Reach Higher Resolution

Microscopes have become more powerful by improving magnification, resolution, and contrast. Early pioneers such as van Leeuwenhoek used far simpler instruments than the microscopes used today. In 1830, Joseph Jackson Lister created an essentially modern light microscope. Later advances in the 20th century added nonvisible light, including fluorescence microscopy and electron microscopy. Many microscopes used in schools and labs are light microscopes. These instruments use light to make images...

key terms and concepts

Learn how X-rays help doctors see bones, teeth, and some soft tissues, plus why shielding and limited exposure are important for safety.

X-Ray Use in Medical Diagnosis | JoVE K12

anatomy and physiology

JoVE Core Anatomy and Physiology showcases the anatomical and physiological details of the human body in comprehensive, clear, and engaging video animations. This collection of lessons focuses on the structures, components, functions, and requirements of the human body. It is complemented by scientist-in-action videos that demonstrate the application of this knowledge in real-world medical and research settings.

Virginia  Standards of Learning

HIgh School

Physical Science

PS.7

PS.7.b

Next Generation Science Standards

HS-PS4-5

Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills

PHYS.8

PHYS.8.E

south-carolina-college-and-career-ready-science-standards

South Carolina College and Career Ready Science Standards

Chemistry

C-PS4-5

P-PS4-5

Biology

Biological Evolution: Unity and Diversity

B-LS4-6.

new-york-state-science-learning-standards

New York State Science Learning Standards

HS. Waves and Electromagnetic Radiation

HS-PS4-5.

Travelling Waves

A wave is a disturbance that propagates from its source, repeating itself periodically, and is typically associated with simple harmonic motion. ...

Wave Parameters

The simplest mechanical waves are associated with simple harmonic motion and repeat themselves for several cycles. These simple harmonic waves can be ...

Equations of Wave Motion

Mathematically, the motion of a wave can be studied using a wavefunction. Consider a string oscillating up and down in simple harmonic motion, having a ...

Graphing the Wave Function

Consider the wave equation for a sinusoidal wave moving in the positive x-direction. The wave equation is a function of both position and time. From the ...

/files/media/science-education/science-education-thumbs/14721.jpg

Velocity and Acceleration of a Wave

A wave propagates through a medium with a constant speed, known as a wave velocity. It is different from the speed of the particles of the medium, which ...

Speed of a Transverse Wave

The speed of a wave depends on the characteristics of the medium. For example, in the case of a guitar, the strings vibrate to produce the sound. The ...

/files/media/science-education/science-education-thumbs/14722.jpg

problem-solving-tuning-of-a-guitar-string

Problem-Solving: Tuning of a Guitar String

In the case of stringed instruments like the guitar, the elastic property that determines the speed of the sound produced is its linear mass density or ...

/files/media/science-education/science-education-thumbs/14744.jpg

Kinetic and Potential Energy of a Wave

All forms of waves carry energy; this is directly visualized in nature. For instance, the waves of earthquakes are so intense that they can shake huge ...

Energy and Power of a Wave

The total energy associated with a wavelength is the sum of the potential energy and the kinetic energy. The average rate of energy transfer associated ...

Interference and Superposition of Waves

When two waves of the same nature occur in the same region simultaneously, they result in interference. Interference of waves implies that the net effect ...

Know wave parameters (i.e. velocity, period, amplitude, frequency, angular frequency) as well as how these quantities are defined in the cases of longitudinal and transverse waves.    Know wave parameters (i.e. velocity, period, amplitude, frequency, angular frequency) as well as how these quantities are defined in the cases of longitudinal and transverse waves.  EXPLANATION: Standard 4.PS4.1 is a student’s introduction to waves. At this time, students address the properties of amplitude, wavelength and direction of a wave and principles of superposition of waves, but not by name. In 8.PS4.1, students revisit the topic adding frequency to their models and beginning to consider wave speed, but without mentioning factors affecting the speed of the waves. PHYS.PS2.3 includes discussion of rotational motion which can pair with discussions of simple harmonic motion to clarify angular velocity and angular speed. Discussions regarding the origin of waves can fully develop these ideas.

PHYS.PS4.1

Speed of Sound in Solids and Liquids

Most solids and liquids are incompressible&#8212;their densities remain constant throughout. In the presence of an external force, the molecules tend to ...

Speed of Sound in Gases

The speed of sound in a gaseous medium depends on various factors. Since gases constitute molecules that are free to move, they are highly compressible. ...

Deriving the Speed of Sound in a Liquid

As with waves on a string, the speed of sound or a mechanical wave in a fluid depends on the fluid&#39;s elastic modulus and inertia. The two relevant ...

/files/media/science-education/science-education-thumbs/14725.jpg

propagation-speed-of-electromagnetic-waves

Propagation Speed of Electromagnetic Waves

Electromagnetic waves are consistent with Ampere&#39;s law. Assuming there is no conduction current Ampere&#39;s law is given as:


Consider a plane ...

Electromagnetic Waves in Matter

Electromagnetic waves can travel in the vacuum as well as in matter. For example light, which is an electromagnetic wave, can travel through air, water, ...

Simple Harmonic Motion

Simple harmonic motion is the name given to oscillatory motion for a system where the net force can be described by Hooke&#39;s law. If the net force can ...

/files/media/science-education/science-education-thumbs/12762.jpg

characteristics-of-simple-harmonic-motion

Characteristics of Simple Harmonic Motion

The key characteristic of the simple harmonic motion is that the acceleration of the system and, therefore, the net force are proportional to the ...

/files/media/science-education/science-education-thumbs/12763.jpg

oscillations-about-an-equilibrium-position

Oscillations about an Equilibrium Position

Stability is an important concept in oscillation. If an equilibrium point is stable, a slight disturbance of an object that is initially at the stable ...

Energy in Simple Harmonic Motion

To determine the energy of a simple harmonic oscillator, consider all the forms of energy it can have during its simple harmonic motion. According to ...

/files/media/science-education/science-education-thumbs/12765.jpg

Frequency of Spring-Mass System

One interesting characteristic of the simple harmonic motion (SHM) of an object attached to a spring is that the angular frequency, and the period and ...

/files/media/science-education/science-education-thumbs/14718.jpg

Describe parameters of a medium that affect the propagation of a sound wave through it. Describe parameters of a medium that affect the propagation of a sound wave through it. EXPLANATION: The focus of this discussion should be properties of the medium, specifically the density of the material. The density becomes a factor in optics and considering transmission of electromagnetic waves. Students can be led to make their descriptions by experimenting with coiled springs stretched to varying lengths. The topic of linear mass density can be used to explore analogous properties in the air.

PHYS.PS4.2

Reflection of Waves

When a wave travels from one medium to another, it gets reflected at the boundary of the second medium. A common example of this is when a person yells at ...

Propagation of Waves

When a wave propagates from one medium to another, part of it may get reflected in the first medium, and part of it may get transmitted to the second ...

Standing Waves

Sometimes waves do not seem to move; rather, they just vibrate in place. Unmoving waves can be seen on the surface of a glass of milk kept in a ...

/files/media/science-education/science-education-thumbs/12783.jpg

Modes of Standing Waves - I

A close look at earthquakes provides evidence for the conditions appropriate for resonance, standing waves, and constructive and destructive interference. ...

/files/media/science-education/science-education-thumbs/12784.jpg

Modes of Standing Waves: II

The starting point for expressing the modes of standing waves is understanding the boundary conditions that the waves must follow. The boundary conditions ...

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Understand that the reflection, refraction, and transmission of waves at an interference between two media can be modeled on the basis of the characteristics of specific wave parameters and parameters of the medium.  Understand that the reflection, refraction, and transmission of waves at an interference between two media can be modeled on the basis of the characteristics of specific wave parameters and parameters of the medium. EXPLANATION: The focus of this standard is on developing an understanding for the behavior of waves at a boundary. To demonstrate these principles, it is suggested that students create waves on a coiled spring or string and send these waves towards either a free or fixed end or through a different weight of string. For instance, wave can be created in a section of a lighter string then transmitted towards a point where that string terminates into a heavier segment of string. In doing so, it is possible to observe the effects on wave amplitude and a discussion of energy differences. Students should extend their observations of these mechanical waves to wave behaviors at other scales.

PHYS.PS4.3

Sound Waves: Interference

Sound waves can be modeled either as longitudinal waves, wherein the molecules of the medium oscillate around an equilibrium position, or as pressure ...

Interference: Path Lengths

Consider two sources of sound, that may or may not be in phase, emitting waves at a single frequency, and consider the frequencies to be the same.
Two ...

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Sound Waves: Resonance

Resonance is produced depending on the boundary conditions imposed on a wave. Resonance can be produced in a string under tension with symmetrical ...

Beats

The study of music provides many examples of the superposition of waves and the constructive and destructive interference that occurs. Very few examples ...

/files/media/science-education/science-education-thumbs/14728.jpg

Communicate scientific and technical information about how the principle of superposition explains the resonance and harmonic phenomena in air columns on strings and common sound devices. Communicate scientific and technical information about how the principle of superposition explains the resonance and harmonic phenomena in air columns on strings and common sound devices. EXPLANATION:  In 4.PS4.1, students examine the effects of superposition of waves, but do not explore the behavior of waves at boundaries. Building on 4.PS4.3, the behavior of a wave at a free or fixed boundaries can create patterns where successive waves produced by a source interact with those reflected off a boundary. Discussions should include general development of the idea of harmonics. Once established, this topic can be extended to the specific function of stringed instruments such as guitars of simple open or closed tubes. The phenomena of resonance can be produced using a tuning fork held above a section of rigid tubing which is lowered or lifted into a pail of water. Resonance can be heard clearly at multiple points, providing an opportunity to model the source of resonance and relate the resonance points to the wavelength of the wave produced. The phenomenon of beats can be used to provide an introduction to this topic as it too is an audible phenomenon. Quick demonstrations of beats can be performed without tuning forks using multiple open windows in a browser simultaneously playing different frequencies.

PHYS.PS4.4

Electromagnetic Waves

James Clerk Maxwell formulated a single theory combining all the electric and magnetic effects scientists knew during that time, calling the phenomena his ...

Generating Electromagnetic Radiations

The German physicist Heinrich Hertz (1857&#8211;1894) was the first to generate and detect certain types of electromagnetic waves in the laboratory. ...

The Electromagnetic Spectrum

Electromagnetic waves are categorized according to their wavelengths and frequencies, giving the electromagnetic spectrum. These waves are classified as ...

Electromagnetic Wave Equation

Maxwell&#39;s equations for electromagnetic fields are related to source charges, either static or moving. These fields act on a test charge, whose ...

Anatomy of the Eyeball

The eyeball is a hollow fluid-filled structure composed of three layers&#8212;the fibrous, vascular, and inner layers.
The superficial fibrous layer has ...

Accessory Structures of the Eye

The accessory structures of the eyes protect and support the eye but are not directly involved in vision.&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;
Eyebrows, ...

Focusing of Light in the Eye

In a normal human eye, as light rays enter, they bend at the cornea, and the lens, to form an inverted image on the retina. The extent to which rays ...

Evaluate the characteristics of the electromagnetic spectrum by communicating the similarities and differences among the different bands. Research and determine methods and devices used to measure these characteristics. Evaluate the characteristics of the electromagnetic spectrum by communicating the similarities and differences among the different bands. Research and determine methods and devices used to measure these characteristics. EXPLANATION: The visible portion of the electromagnetic spectrum will be familiar to students, as will the ideas of x-rays, microwaves, and radiowaves. However, students often struggle to see these phenomena as multiple manifestations of the same principles. It may be beneficial to relate these discussions to the physiology of the human eye, specifically the function of the rhodopsin photopigment. As a demonstration: the light bulbs on the front of remote controls emit light outside of the visible spectrum; however, inexpensive cell phone cameras lack IR filters (as well as some front facing cameras on more current cell phones). Rendering the IR light visible can help student to understand that many devices function by capturing the energy of electromagnetic waves. An additional option would be the creation of a crystal radio using a germanium diode.

PHYS.PS4.5

Light as Energy

The energy required to carry out photosynthesis is light&#8212; typically electromagnetic radiation from the sun. The range of all possible wavelengths is ...

dual-nature-of-electromagnetic-em-radiation

Dual Nature of Electromagnetic (EM) Radiation

Electromagnetic (EM) radiation consists of electric and magnetic field components oscillating in planes perpendicular to each other and mutually ...

interaction-of-em-radiation-with-matter-spectroscopy

Interaction of EM Radiation with Matter: Spectroscopy

Electromagnetic (EM) radiation can be considered an oscillating electric and magnetic field propagating through a medium that can interact with matter in ...

Plan and conduct controlled scientific investigations to construct explanations of light’s behavior (reflection, refraction, transmission, interference) including the use of ray diagrams. Plan and conduct controlled scientific investigations to construct explanations of light’s behavior (reflection, refraction, transmission, interference) including the use of ray diagrams. EXPLANATION:  In PHYS.PS4.3 students examine the behaviors of mechanical waves moving through a medium. Though the terminology in this standard is comparable, this standard focuses on optics of light. Students should work with lenses and mirrors to build an understanding of the behaviors of light as it interacts with surfaces (reflection, refraction, transmission). In 4.PS4.1 and PHYS.PS4.1, students investigated interference patterns with mechanical waves. Using a pair of speakers and an online tone/frequency generator, it is possible to demonstrate that sound waves, like mechanical waves, can interfere with each other. In such a demonstration, students are able to hear variations in the volume of the sound as they walk in a straight line across the field of sound created by the speakers.

PHYS.PS4.6

The Wave Nature of Light

The nature of light has been a subject of inquiry since antiquity. In the seventeenth century, Isaac Newton performed experiments with lenses and prisms ...

The electromagnetic spectrum consists of all the types of electromagnetic radiation arranged according to their frequency and wavelength. Each of the ...

Interference and Diffraction

Interference is a characteristic phenomenon exhibited by waves. When two electromagnetic waves interact with their peaks and troughs coinciding, a ...

Photoelectric Effect

When light of a particular wavelength strikes a metal surface, electrons are emitted. This is called the photoelectric effect. The minimum frequency of ...

Evaluate the claims, evidence, and reasoning behind the idea that electromagnetic radiation can be described either by a wave model or a particle model. Evaluate the claims, evidence, and reasoning behind the idea that electromagnetic radiation can be described either by a wave model or a particle model. EXPLANATION:  Most students willingly accept the particle behavior of light. As early as first grade, students have experimented with the behavior of light and observed that shadows can be created if some of the particles of light are blocked. Introductory explanations of the photoelectric effect can provide more advanced evidence for the particle behavior. Properties of wave behavior can be demonstrated by observing interference patterns in Young’s double slit experiment. Simple models using strips of paper to represent waves can provide a more tangible experience to understand the interference phenomena.

PHYS.PS4.7

Signal and System

Signals are sets of data or information.
One-dimensional signals include single-variable functions, such as the variations in air pressure over time in ...

Classification of Signals

Signals are categorized as Continuous-time or discrete-time, Periodic or aperiodic, Analog or digital, and Causal or noncausal.
A continuous-time signal ...

Ultrasonography

Ultrasonography is an imaging technique that uses high-frequency sound waves to visualize the body&#39;s internal structures. It is a non-invasive and ...

X-ray Fluorescence (XRF)

Source: Laboratory of Dr. Lydia Finney &#8212; Argonne National Laboratory
X-ray fluorescence is an induced, emitted radiation that can be used to ...

radiological-investigation-i-x-ray-and-ct

Radiological Investigation I: X-ray and CT

Chest X-rays capture images of the chest, heart, lungs, and blood vessels to screen and diagnose respiratory issues.
They detect abnormalities like fluid, ...

Obtain information to construct explanations on how waves are used to produce, transmit, and capture signals and store and interpret information.  Obtain information to construct explanations on how waves are used to produce, transmit, and capture signals and store and interpret information. EXPLANATION:  In 8.PS4.3 students are introduced to the use of waves in communication systems. Further development of these discussions might include a distinction between the differences between analog and digital signals and necessity for digital signals in communication. Additionally, waves can be used for detection in x-rays or ultrasound. Information that is digitized can be stored with very little loss to the quality of the data itself.

Reflection and Refraction

Source: Derek Wilson,&#160;Asantha Cooray, PhD, Department of Physics &#38; Astronomy, School of Physical Sciences, University of California, Irvine, CA
...

Investigate how information is carried in optical systems and use Snell’s law to describe the properties of optical fibers. Investigate how information is carried in optical systems and use Snell’s law to describe the properties of optical fibers. EXPLANATION:  As light travels from one medium to another, the path of light is bent. Snell’s law can be used to determine the critical angle for a medium. This angle represents the angle at which the light does not exit the medium but instead is reflected back into the medium. Fiber optic cables utilize this phenomena by transmitting light that reflects off of the internal walls of the cable rather than escaping the cable.

PHYS.PS4.9

X-Ray Use in Medical Diagnosis

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