Name: pulmonary tb transmission and risk
Uploaded: 2024-10-25T15:12:22.000Z
Duration: 1 min 29 s
Channel: JoVE

K12 Standards

ohios-learning-standards-and-model-curriculum

Ohio’s Learning Standards and Model Curriculum

9-12

Human Anatomy and Physiology

Absorption And Excretion

Respiratory System

Pulmonary Tuberculosis I

Tuberculosis or TB is an infectious disease caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis primarily affecting the lung parenchyma.
It can also affect other body parts, such as the meninges, kidneys, bones, and lymph nodes.
The disease spreads through airborne droplets released when infected individuals breathe, talk, sing, sneeze, or cough.
These droplets evaporate, leaving tiny nuclei, ranging from 1-5 &#181;m in size, suspended in the air for durations varying from minutes to hours. Inhaling these nuclei spreads the infection to others.
Several factors increase the risk of tuberculosis transmission.
Close contact with someone with active TB heightens the risk of inhaling airborne nuclei, depending on exposure duration, proximity, and ventilation conditions.
Healthcare workers performing high-risk procedures, such as bronchoscopy and suctioning, are particularly vulnerable.
Immunocompromised individuals, such as organ transplant recipients, people undergoing hemodialysis, and people with HIV, substance use disorders, or long-term diabetes, can heighten susceptibility to tuberculosis.

pulmonary tuberculosis i

Tuberculosis, often called TB, is a contagious illness primarily caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis. It mainly affects the lung parenchyma but can also impact other body parts.
Causative Organism
The primary infectious agent causing tuberculosis is Mycobacterium tuberculosis, a slow-growing, acid-fast, aerobic rod that exhibits sensitivity to heat and ultraviolet light. Instances of Mycobacterium bovis and Mycobacterium avium contributing to the development of TB infection are rare.
Mode of Transmission
Mycobacterium tuberculosis primarily spreads through respiratory droplets generated when infected individuals breathe, talk, sing, sneeze, or cough. As the droplets evaporate, tiny nuclei measuring 1 to 5 &#181;m remain suspended in the air for varying durations, ranging from minutes to hours. Another person can acquire the infection by inhaling these droplet nuclei. It is important to note that TB is not highly contagious, and transmission generally occurs with close, frequent, or prolonged exposure. Brief contact with a few tubercle bacilli rarely leads to infection. It is worth mentioning that TB cannot be transmitted through touch, sharing of food utensils, kissing, or any other form of physical contact.
Various factors increase the transmission probability, such as the number of microorganisms released into the air. The concentration of these microorganisms is higher in small and poorly ventilated spaces, like prisons and homeless shelters. The length of time of exposure also influences transmission. Additionally, the individual&#39;s immune system can impact the likelihood of transmission.
While anyone can contract TB, certain risk factors significantly increase the likelihood of transmission, including the following.
<ul>
	<li>&#8226; Close contact with an individual with active TB increases the risk of inhaling airborne nuclei. The level of risk depends on the duration of exposure, proximity, and ventilation conditions.</li>
</ul>
<ul>
	<li>&#8226; For instance, Healthcare workers are involved in high-risk activities, such as administering aerosolized medications, bronchoscopy, suctioning, caring for immunocompromised patients, and conducting anesthesia-related procedures like intubation and suctioning.</li>
</ul>
<ul>
	<li>&#8226; Immunocompromised status encompasses individuals with HIV infection, cancer, organ transplant recipients, and those undergoing prolonged high-dose corticosteroid therapy. These conditions render the immune system vulnerable, necessitating special care and attention.</li>
</ul>
<ul>
	<li>&#8226; Individuals who abuse alcohol or use intravenous drugs are at an increased risk of developing substance use disorder, which impairs their immune function and weakens their ability to fight infections, such as tuberculosis. Intravenous drug use, particularly through needle sharing, significantly increases the risk of contracting HIV. When left untreated, HIV causes a substantial reduction in CD4+ T-cells&#8212;cells that play a critical role in the immune response. This severe immunosuppression makes individuals far more vulnerable to opportunistic infections, including TB.</li>
</ul>
<ul>
	<li>&#8226; Certain medical conditions or specialized treatments can heighten vulnerability. These include diabetes, chronic kidney disease, malnourishment, specific malignancies, hemodialysis, organ transplantation, gastrectomy, and jejunoileal bypass.</li>
</ul>
<ul>
	<li>&#8226; Additionally, living in overcrowded and substandard housing, institutionalization, immigration from or recent travel to countries with a high prevalence of TB, and limited healthcare access are all factors that contribute to a higher risk of tuberculosis.</li>
</ul>

Tuberculosis or TB is an infectious disease caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis primarily affecting the lung parenchyma.
It can also affect other body ...

Education

JoVE Core

Medical-Surgical Nursing

Unit 1

Lower Respiratory Tract Infections

KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS

pulmonary tb transmission and risk

Pulmonary tuberculosis, or TB, is a contagious illness caused mainly by Mycobacterium tuberculosis. It usually affects the lung parenchyma, which is the tissue of the lungs, but it can also spread to other parts of the body. The main germ is a slow-growing, acid-fast, aerobic rod that is sensitive to heat and ultraviolet light. Rarely, Mycobacterium bovis and Mycobacterium avium can also contribute to TB infection.

TB spreads through respiratory droplets that are released when an infected person breathes, talks, sings, sneezes, or coughs. After the droplets evaporate, tiny droplet nuclei measuring about 1 to 5 μm can stay in the air for minutes to hours. Another person can become infected by inhaling these airborne particles. TB is not highly contagious, and spread usually requires close, frequent, or prolonged exposure.

Brief contact with only a few tubercle bacilli rarely leads to infection. TB also does not spread through touch, sharing food utensils, kissing, or other physical contact. The number of microorganisms in the air matters, too. Smaller, poorly ventilated spaces such as prisons and homeless shelters can hold higher concentrations of the bacteria.

The chance of transmission also depends on how long exposure lasts and on the immune system of the person exposed. Anyone can get TB, but some situations raise the risk. Close contact with a person who has active TB is a major risk because it increases the chance of breathing in droplet nuclei. Health care workers are also at higher risk during activities such as giving aerosolized medications, bronchoscopy, suctioning, caring for immunocompromised patients, and procedures like intubation and suctioning.

Immunocompromised people are more vulnerable to TB. This group includes people with HIV infection, cancer, organ transplants, or long-term high-dose corticosteroid therapy. Alcohol abuse and intravenous drug use can also increase risk by weakening immune function. Needle sharing raises the chance of HIV infection, and untreated HIV lowers CD4+ T-cells, which makes opportunistic infections such as TB more likely.

Other conditions and treatments can also increase vulnerability. These include diabetes, chronic kidney disease, malnourishment, certain cancers, hemodialysis, organ transplantation, gastrectomy, and jejunoileal bypass. Risk is also higher in people living in overcrowded or poor housing, in institutional settings, in those who recently immigrated from or traveled to countries with high TB rates, and in people with limited access to health care.

Pulmonary TB Transmission and Risk

pneumonia i: introduction

Pneumonia Risk Factors and Types

Pneumonia is an acute respiratory infection that affects the lungs, especially the alveoli. These tiny air sacs normally help with oxygen exchange. When they fill with pus and fluid, breathing becomes harder, oxygen absorption drops, and chest pain or discomfort can occur during breathing. Several factors raise the risk of pneumonia. Infants, children under two, and adults over 65 are more vulnerable because their immune systems are less robust. Smoking also increases risk by weakening the...

pneumonia ii: pathophysiology

Pneumonia: Lung Inflammation and Gas Exchange

Pneumonia affects the lungs by causing inflammation in the lower respiratory tract. It usually begins when bacteria, viruses, or fungi are inhaled or aspirated into the airways and reach the lungs. The respiratory tract normally has defenses that help stop infection. Mucociliary clearance moves trapped material out of the airways, and the cough reflex helps remove irritants. If these defenses are weakened, or if the pathogen is highly virulent, the infection can take hold. Once the organisms...

pneumonia iii: complications and assessment

pneumonia-iii-complications-and-assessment

Pneumonia Complications and Diagnosis

Pneumonia can lead to several serious complications, and doctors also use a step-by-step process to diagnose it. Knowing these complications and tests helps explain why early assessment matters. Complications can affect the lungs, nearby tissue, and even the whole body. Pleurisy is inflammation of the pleura, the lining around the lungs, and it can cause chest pain and discomfort. Pleural effusion is fluid buildup in the pleural space. Atelectasis is a partial collapse of a lung lobe that can...

pneumonia iv: management

Pneumonia Treatment and Recovery

Pneumonia treatment depends on the cause and how severe the illness is. Care plans combine medicine with supportive care to help the lungs heal and to lower the risk of complications. For bacterial pneumonia, antibiotics are the main treatment. Doctors often start with empirical antibiotics, which means medicine chosen before the exact germ is confirmed, and then adjust the drug after culture results. For community-acquired pneumonia, common choices include amoxicillin, doxycycline, or...

pneumonia v: nursing management and prevention

pneumonia-v-nursing-management-and-prevention

Pneumonia Care: Airway, Rest, and Hydration

Pneumonia care focuses on keeping the airway open, supporting rest, and helping the patient stay hydrated and nourished. Nursing care also includes patient teaching and strict medical asepsis, which means careful clean technique to reduce healthcare-associated infections. Airway patency is a major priority. The patient should be positioned to help drain affected lung segments, and percussion and vibration may be used to loosen secretions. Nurses also encourage ambulation, upright sitting, deep...

Pulmonary tuberculosis, or TB, is a contagious illness caused mainly by Mycobacterium tuberculosis. It usually affects the lung parenchyma, which is the tissue of the lungs, but it can also spread to other parts of the body. The main germ is a slow-growing, acid-fast, aerobic rod that is sensitive to heat and ultraviolet light. Rarely, Mycobacterium bovis and Mycobacterium avium can also contribute to TB infection. TB spreads through respiratory droplets that are released when an infected...

pulmonary tuberculosis ii

How TB Spreads and Becomes Active

Tuberculosis, or TB, is a bacterial infectious disease caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis. It usually affects the lungs, which is called pulmonary tuberculosis, but it can also spread to other organs. That wider spread is called extrapulmonary tuberculosis. TB starts when a person inhales droplet nuclei that contain M. tuberculosis. These tiny particles can enter the air when someone with pulmonary or laryngeal TB coughs, sneezes, or speaks. The bacteria then reach the alveoli, the small air...

pulmonary tuberculosis iii

Tuberculosis Types and Disease Stages

Tuberculosis (TB) is a contagious infection that most often affects the lungs, but it can also spread to other parts of the body. TB is grouped by disease stage, how it presents, and where it occurs in the body. One way to classify TB is by disease development. Class zero means a person has no known TB exposure and a negative tuberculin skin test. Class one means the person has been exposed, but the skin test is still negative. Class two means the tuberculin skin test is positive, but there is...

pulmonary tuberculosis iv

TB Testing: Skin Test and Follow-Up

Tuberculosis testing starts with the tuberculin skin test, or TST, also called the Mantoux test. TB is an infectious disease caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis. It usually affects the lungs, but it can also spread to other parts of the body. Because TB can be severe and spread widely, early and accurate diagnosis is important. The TST is the standard screening test for TB, but it has limits. It cannot tell latent TB infection from active TB disease. It also requires two visits to a...

pulmonary tuberculosis v

TB Treatment, Isolation, and Monitoring

Tuberculosis treatment depends on whether the infection is latent or active, and it also depends on the patient’s overall health. Latent tuberculosis infection means TB bacteria are present in the body but are not causing illness or symptoms. It is not contagious, but preventive treatment is important to keep it from becoming active TB disease. Latent TB can be treated in a few ways. One option is isoniazid, or INH, taken daily for nine months. Another is INH with rifapentine, or RPT, taken...

acute respiratory failure-i

Acute Respiratory Failure: Blood Gas Changes

Acute respiratory failure happens when the lungs cannot keep up with gas exchange. The body then gets too little oxygen in the blood, too much carbon dioxide, or both. These changes can quickly affect organ function and need immediate care when they develop suddenly and severely. Doctors define this condition with blood gas measurements. Hypoxemia means the partial pressure of oxygen, or PaO2, falls below 60 mmHg. Hypercapnia means the partial pressure of carbon dioxide, or PaCO2, rises above...

acute respiratory failure-ii

Hypoxemia Causes in Type I Respiratory Failure

Type I respiratory failure is also called hypoxemic respiratory failure. It happens when arterial oxygen pressure, or PaO2, falls below 60 mmHg while a person is breathing room air. In this form of respiratory failure, carbon dioxide pressure, or PaCO2, does not rise in the same way. The main problem is that the lungs cannot oxygenate the blood well enough. One common cause is ventilation-perfusion, or V/Q, mismatch. This means airflow and blood flow in the lungs are not balanced. V/Q mismatch...

acute respiratory failure-iii

Hypercapnic Respiratory Failure Causes

Hypercapnic respiratory failure is a type of ventilatory failure in which the body cannot remove carbon dioxide (CO2) effectively. It is also called Type 2 respiratory failure. In this condition, arterial CO2 pressure, or PaCO2, rises above 45 mmHg, while blood pH stays above 7.35. The problem appears when ventilatory demand is higher than ventilatory supply, meaning the body needs more breathing support than it can deliver without tiring the respiratory muscles. Several problems can lower...

acute respiratory failure-iv

Signs of Acute Respiratory Failure

Acute respiratory failure shows up as a rapid drop in oxygen and a rapid rise in carbon dioxide. It can start suddenly or build up over time. Because it can become life-threatening quickly, early signs matter. A change in mental status is often one of the first clues in hypoxemic acute respiratory failure. The brain is very sensitive to low oxygen and shifts in acid-base balance. Restlessness, confusion, and agitation can all point to poor oxygen delivery to the brain. Signs of carbon dioxide...

acute respiratory failure-v

Acute Respiratory Failure Care Strategies

Acute respiratory failure care focuses on restoring oxygenation, improving ventilation, and correcting acid-base imbalance. Treatment depends on the cause, the patient’s overall health, and how severe the respiratory failure is. A collaborative healthcare team is important for early detection, often with arterial blood gas (ABG) analysis, which measures oxygen and carbon dioxide levels in the blood. The first goal is to identify the cause of the problem. Care plans may be adjusted for...

key terms and concepts

Learn how pulmonary tuberculosis spreads through airborne droplets and which conditions, settings, and health factors raise TB risk in high school science.

Pulmonary TB Transmission and Risk | JoVE K12

JoVE Core Medical-Surgical Nursing offers comprehensive animated lessons that cover major systems of the human body, integrating anatomy and physiology with system-specific assessments. This collection encompasses disease conditions based on the body systems, detailing their pathophysiology, medical and surgical management, and nursing interventions. These lessons provide a clear and practical understanding of medical-surgical care, equipping students with essential skills for managing patient care in various clinical settings.

medical-surgical nursing

Major Organs of the Digestive System

The human digestive system consists of two major parts: the gastrointestinal &#8212; GI &#8212; tract and the accessory organs.
The GI tract begins with ...

Peritoneum

The peritoneum is the body&#39;s largest serous membrane enveloping the abdominal cavity.
It has two portions &#8212; the parietal and visceral peritoneum ...

histology-of-the-gastrointestinal-gi-tract

Histology of the Gastrointestinal (GI) Tract

The gastrointestinal tract has four tissue layers.
The innermost layer, mucosa, is characterized as a mucous membrane. It consists of an epithelium, ...

Nerve Supply of the GI Tract

The gastrointestinal tract has its own intrinsic set of nerves forming the enteric nervous system or ENS,&#160; which is partly controlled by the ...

Regulation of the Digestive System

Along with the enteric nervous system, digestive activity is regulated by mechanical and chemical stimuli and hormones.
Various receptors located within ...

Blood Supply to the Digestive System

Splanchnic circulation refers to the network of blood vessels that supply and drain blood from the abdominal organs involved in digestion, including the ...

Oral Cavity

The oral cavity, or mouth, comprises the lips, cheeks, palate, and tongue.
The walls of the mouth are lined with thick, stratified squamous epithelium, ...

Tongue

The tongue, an accessory digestive organ, forms the floor of the oral cavity and extends into the oropharynx.
It is composed of two types of skeletal ...

Salivary Glands and Saliva

Saliva is composed of 97 to 99.5% water. The remaining proportion includes enzymes such as lipases and amylases, electrolytes, dissolved gasses, IgA, ...

Teeth

Teeth are accessory digestive organs that aid in physically breaking down food.
&#160;The gums, or gingivae, of both the mandible and maxilla hold the ...

Tooth Anatomy

The tooth has a crown and a root connected via a constricted area known as the neck.
The crown is visible above the gingivae and is protected by enamel.
...

Esophagus

The esophagus is a muscular conduit approximately 25 cm long that helps transport food from the mouth to the stomach.
It courses through the mediastinum ...

Deglutition

Deglutition, or swallowing, is a mechanism that transports food from the mouth to the stomach.
This process has three stages &#8212; the buccal, ...

Gross Anatomy of the Stomach

The stomach is a J-shaped organ connecting the esophagus to the duodenal end of the small intestine in the abdominal cavity.
The size and shape of the ...

Stomach Histology

The stomach wall consists of several layers, including the serosa, muscularis externa, submucosa, and mucosa.
The outermost layer, the serosa, is composed ...

Hormones Secreted by the Stomach

The specialized enteroendocrine cells of the gastric glands secrete most of the digestive hormones.
These cells, such as the G, D, and ...

Cephalic Phase of Digestion

Digestion has three overlapping phases &#8212; cephalic, gastric, and intestinal &#8212; based on the location of their control center.
The cephalic phase ...

Gastric Phase of Digestion

Local, neural and hormonal mechanisms trigger the gastric phase after food enters the stomach, lasting approximately 3-4 hours.
The incoming food bolus ...

Diseases of the Liver and Gallbladder

Prominent liver and gallbladder diseases include cirrhosis, hepatitis, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease or NAFLD, and gallstones.
Cirrhosis is a liver ...

Intestinal Phase of Digestion

After the gastric phase, the chyme from the stomach moves into the small intestine, gradually decreasing the stomach distention.
In contrast, the arrival ...

Pancreas

The pancreas is a pinkish-gray organ located behind the stomach. It extends from the duodenum to the spleen.
It can be divided into a broad head located ...

Mucosal Barrier of the Stomach

In the gastric glands, the parietal cells are involved in hydrochloric acid or HCl formation.
These cells first synthesize carbonic acid, which ...

Pancreatic Juice and Secretion

Pancreatic juice is a colorless liquid composed of water, salts, sodium bicarbonate, and enzymes secreted by the exocrine cells.
During digestion, chyme ...

Gastric Motility

Gastric motility is the coordinated movement of stomach muscles and secretions, which propels food and liquids through the stomach.
As the swallowed food ...

Small Intestine

The small intestine is a tubular structure extending from the pyloric sphincter of the stomach to the ileocecal valve of the large intestine.
This long, ...

Gastric Emptying

Gastric emptying is the gradual release of chyme from the stomach into the duodenum.
Stomach distention triggers the gastroenteric reflex, releasing ...

Histology of the Small Intestine

The histology of each part of the small intestine varies. The jejunum has the most prominent folds and villi, while the distal ileum has fewer folds but ...

Gross Anatomy of the Liver

The liver is the largest gland in the body, weighing approximately 1.4 kg in adults.
It is wedge-shaped and located more in the right hypochondriac and ...

mechanical-and-chemical-digestion-in-the-small-intestine

Mechanical and Chemical Digestion in the Small Intestine

The small intestine plays a crucial role in our digestive system, performing both mechanical and chemical digestion.
Mechanical digestion in the small ...

Liver Histology

The liver comprises several histological components, such as hepatocytes, bile canaliculi, and sinusoids.
Hepatocytes are specialized epithelial cells ...

Large Intestine

The large intestine is divided into three main regions: the cecum, colon, and rectum. Extending from the ileocecal valve to the anus, it frames the small ...

Bile

Bile is a yellow-green alkaline liquid secreted by the liver into the right and left hepatic ducts and then into the common hepatic duct. From here, it ...

Histology of the Large Intestine

The large intestine, a vital component of the gastrointestinal tract, is structured with four main layers: the mucosa, submucosa, muscularis, and serosa. ...

Gallbladder

The gallbladder is a muscular sac located in a shallow fossa on the inferior surface of the liver. It measures about 10 cm in length and is roughly the ...

Bacterial Flora of the Large

Intestine

The vast and varied community of bacteria colonizing the large intestine forms the gut microbiome.
Bacteria start residing in the gut at birth and ...

Liver Physiology

Liver functions primarily include bile production, metabolic regulation, and hematological functions.
During carbohydrate metabolism, the liver regulates ...

digestive-functions-of-the-large-intestine

Digestive Functions of the Large Intestine

The final stages of digestion occur in the large intestine when the cecum receives chyme, which has little nutritional value except for the indigestible ...

Absorption of Nutrients

During digestion in the small intestine, macromolecules&#8212; carbohydrates, proteins, and fats &#8212; are broken down into their simplest forms.
These ...

Feces Formation and Defecation

After spending 3 to 10 hours in the large intestine, chyme loses a lot of water and becomes feces, the final product of digestion. Feces consist of ...

Other Disorders of Digestive System

The gastrointestinal tract of the digestive system is susceptible to various disorders.
The incompetence of the lower esophageal sphincter results in the ...

Digestive System

Content elaboration: The digestive system consists of the gastrointestinal tract (alimentary canal) as well as various accessory organs including the teeth, tongue, salivary glands, liver, gallbladder and pancreas. The digestive system processes and supplies the molecules needed to sustain the living tissues within the body through the absorption of nutrients. Six major functions of the digestive system include secretion, ingestion, mechanical processing, enzymatic digestion, absorption and excretion. The lining of the digestive system protects surrounding tissues from the mechanical and enzymatic stresses of the digestive process. Processes of the digestive system include the mechanical and chemical breakdown of food into small molecules which are then absorbed by the digestive tract. Specific actions within the digestive system include mastication, peristalsis, segmentation and the release of hormones and enzymes necessary for digestion. The metabolic functions of the accessory organs play strategic roles in the breakdown of food products, the maintenance of glucose levels within the blood and the regulation of homeostasis in the body. Indigestible material is excreted as waste. Homeostatic imbalances are explored. These include, but are not limited to, conditions such as gallstones, heartburn, ulcers, dehydration, diarrhea, cirrhosis and cancers of the digestive system. Investigations are used to understand and explain the digestive system in a variety of inquiry and design scenarios that can incorporate evolutionary concepts, scientific reasoning, comparative analysis, communication skills and real-world applications.

Digestive System

Overview of Respiratory System

The respiratory system includes both upper and lower respiratory organs.
The upper respiratory organs consist of the nose and nasal cavity, paranasal ...

Nose and Nasal Cavity

The nose is composed of an observable exterior segment (external nose) and an internal segment within the skull known as the nasal cavity (internal nose). ...

Pharynx

The pharynx, a tubular structure framed by skeletal muscle and lined with mucous membrane, extends continuously from the nasal cavities. It is segmented ...

Larynx

The larynx or voice box connects the laryngopharynx with the trachea.
It includes unpaired thyroid cartilage, cricoid cartilage, and the epiglottis, as ...

Trachea

The trachea or windpipe begins at the larynx and extends into the mediastinum, bifurcating into two main bronchi in the mid-thorax region.
The tracheal ...

The Bronchial Tree

The human bronchi and bronchial tree play a crucial role in the respiratory system, facilitating the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide. Let&#39;s ...

Alveoli and Alveolar Ducts

Within a pulmonary lobule, the terminal bronchioles branch into microscopic respiratory bronchioles, which conduct air to the respiratory zone of the ...

Gross Anatomy of the Lungs

The lungs are a pair of vital organs connected to the trachea via the left and right bronchi. The base of these organs meets the dome-shaped muscle known ...

Pleura of the Lungs

The lungs are nestled in a cavity, shielded by the pleura. The pleura, a form of serous membrane, wraps around each lung. This membrane arrangement ...

pressure-relationships-in-thoracic-cavity

Pressure Relationships in Thoracic Cavity

Healthy respiration in humans requires proper air pressure levels in different respiratory organs.
These pressures are expressed relative to the ...

Pulmonary Ventilation: Inhalation

Pulmonary ventilation is a vital process that ensures the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the lungs. It refers to the movement of air into and ...

Pulmonary Cycle: Exhalation

Exhalation &#8212; the process of expelling air &#8212; during quiet breathing in healthy individuals relies on the elasticity of the lungs rather than ...

Factors Affecting Pulmonary Ventilation

Breathing is influenced by the alternating pressure difference between the external environment and the lungs, alveolar surface tension, lung compliance, ...

Respiratory Volumes and Capacities

The respiratory system is responsible for the intake of oxygen and the expulsion of carbon dioxide from the body. Respiratory volumes describe the volume ...

physical-principles-governing-gas-exchange

Physical Principles Governing Gas Exchange

Inhaled air contains a mixture of different gases like nitrogen, oxygen, and carbon dioxide, among others.
Dalton&#39;s law is fundamental to ...

External and Internal Respiration

External respiration involves the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between alveoli and pulmonary capillaries in the lungs.
This gas exchange always ...

Oxygen Transport in the Blood

Blood primarily transports oxygen bound to hemoglobin in RBCs, with a small percentage dissolved in the plasma due to its low solubility in the blood.
...

Carbon Dioxide Transport in the Blood

Carbon dioxide is transported from tissues to the lungs in three ways.
About 7-10% travels dissolved in plasma.
Over 20% is bound to hemoglobin, forming ...

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Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease-I: Introduction

Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease, or COPD, is a progressive respiratory illness that causes airflow obstruction, affecting the bronchioles, bronchi, ...

Hypoxia

Hypoxia is a condition where body tissues don&#39;t receive an adequate oxygen supply. It may be categorized into four distinct types.
Anemic hypoxia ...

Asthma-I: Introduction

Asthma is a chronic inflammatory lung disease characterized by hyperresponsive airways, mucosal swelling, and excessive mucus production.
These conditions ...

Respiratory System

Content elaboration: The respiratory system is comprised of the airways, lungs and diaphragm. The airways include the nasal and oral cavities, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles and alveoli. The respiratory system transports and exchanges gases including oxygen and carbon dioxide. Processes involved in the respiratory system include respiration mechanics and gas exchange. Respiration mechanics is the process by which humans breathe and includes the movement of the diaphragm and pressure-volume relationships. Gas exchange refers to the diffusion of gas across the alveolar epithelium in the respiratory system and capillary endothelium of the cardiovascular system. Lung volumes and capacities can be measured using spirometry. Homeostatic imbalances are explored. These include, but are not limited to, asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), tuberculosis, cystic fibrosis and the effects of smoking and pollution. Investigations are used to understand and explain the respiratory system in a variety of inquiry and design scenarios that can incorporate evolutionary concepts, scientific reasoning, comparative analysis, communication skills and real-world applications.

Pulmonary TB Transmission and Risk

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