G2-seq: A High Throughput Sequencing-based Technique for Identifying Late Replicating Regions of the Genome

Summary

We describe a technique for combining flow cytometry and high throughput sequencing to identify late replicating regions of the genome.

Abstract

Numerous techniques have been developed to follow the progress of DNA replication through the S phase of the cell cycle. Most of these techniques have been directed toward elucidation of the location and timing of initiation of genome duplication rather than its completion. However, it is critical that we understand regions of the genome that are last to complete replication, because these regions suffer elevated levels of chromosomal breakage and mutation, and they have been associated with both disease and aging. Here we describe how we have extended a technique that has been used to monitor replication initiation to instead identify those regions of the genome last to complete replication. This approach is based on a combination of flow cytometry and high throughput sequencing. Although this report focuses on the application of this technique to yeast, the approach can be used with any cells that can be sorted in a flow cytometer according to DNA content.

Introduction

Eukaryotic genome replication is initiated at multiple discrete sites, called origins of replication, from which replication forks proceed in both directions (reviewed in Fragkos et al., 2015¹). Origins vary in both their timing and efficiency of firing, and several techniques have been developed to monitor replication origin activity and elucidate the causes of this variation. The activity of individual origins can be inferred from levels of single-stranded DNA², which forms around active origins, or by using 2D gel electrophoresis to monitor specific replication intermediates³, both of ....

Protocol

1. Preparation of Cells for Flow Cytometry Sorting

1. Inoculate 15 mL test tubes containing 8 mL each of YEPD broth such that the cultures reach a density of 5 x 10⁶ to 1.5 x 10⁷ cells per mL after overnight growth (see discussion note 1).
2. Spin down yeast cells (1,400 x g, at room temperature or 4 °C) in a 15 mL screw cap centrifuge tube for 5 min, resuspend cells in 1.5 mL 70% ethanol, and transfer to a 1.6 mL microfuge tube, letting this sit for 1 h at room temperature or at least 3 h on ice (can be stored indefinitely at 4 °C) (see Discussion point (2)).
3. Spin down yeast cells in the microfuge (14,000 x g,....

Results

We have used the procedure described above to identify late replicating sites in budding yeast. Testing this approach using a known late replicating region on an artificial chromosome proved the technique to be accurate and reliable. Our results have also demonstrated the biological importance of timely completion of replication by showing that a late replicating region on chromosome 7, which we identified as late replicating on the basis of our G2-seq results, was lost approximately thre.......

Discussion

While this technique is robust and relatively straight forward, particular attention should be devoted to the following:

(1) We recommend that cultures grow for at least 12 h before they reach log phase, since differences manifest in cell cycle distributions if cultures are harvested after having reached the desired density just 4 h after inoculation. Our assumption is that a cell cycle distribution that has reached a relatively stable equilibrium better represents a "real" log phase d.......

Materials

List of materials used in this article

Name	Company	Catalog Number	Comments
YeaStar Genomic DNA kit	Genesee Scientific	11-323
1 µM SYTOX Green	ThermoFisher	57020	resuspend in 50 mM sodium citrate, pH 7.2
50 mM sodium citrate, pH 7.2
RNase solution (0.25 mg / mL)	Sigma	R6513	0.25 mg / mL RNaseA resuspended in 50 mM sodium citrate, pH 7.2, boil RNase solution for 10 minutes before the first use only, and from then on store at -20°
proteinase K solution (20 mg / mL)	ThermoFisher / Invitrogen	25530-015	resuspend in 10 mM Tris, pH 7.5, 2 mM CaCl2, 50% glycerol, store at -20°C
Model 50 Sonic Dismembrator	Fisher Scientific	FB50A220
BD Biosciences FACSAria II	BD Biosciences	644832
Zymo-spin III columns	Zymo Research	C1005
Qubit dsDNA HS Assay Kit	ThermoFisher	Q32851
Qubit 3.0 Fluorometer	ThermoFisher	Q33216
Covaris Model LE220 Focused-Ultrasonicator	Covaris	500219
Illumina TruSeq DNA LT Sample Prep Kit	Illumina	15026486
Illumina HiSeq 2500 instrument	Illumina	SY–401–2501
gsnap alignment software	open source software / Genentech		http://research-pub.gene.com/gmap