Detection of endotoxins in engineered nanomaterials represents one of the grand challenges in the field of nanomedicine. Here, we present a case study that describes the framework composed of three different LAL formats to estimate potential endotoxin contamination in nanoparticles.
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Method Article
Detection of Endotoxin in Nano-formulations Using Limulus Amoebocyte Lysate (LAL) Assays
In This Article
Summary
Abstract
When present in pharmaceutical products, a Gram-negative bacterial cell wall component endotoxin (often also called lipopolysaccharide) can cause inflammation, fever, hypo- or hypertension, and, in extreme cases, can lead to tissue and organ damage that may become fatal. The amounts of endotoxin in pharmaceutical products, therefore, are strictly regulated. Among the methods available for endotoxin detection and quantification, the Limulus Amoebocyte Lysate (LAL) assay is commonly used worldwide. While any pharmaceutical product can interfere with the LAL assay, nano-formulations represent a particular challenge due to their complexity. The purpose of this paper is to provide a practical guide to researchers inexperienced in estimating endotoxins in engineered nanomaterials and nanoparticle-formulated drugs. Herein, practical recommendations for performing three LAL formats including turbidity, chromogenic and gel-clot assays are discussed. These assays can be used to determine endotoxin contamination in nanotechnology-based drug products, vaccines, and adjuvants.
Introduction
An endotoxin is a building block of the Gram-negative bacterial cell wall1,2. It can activate the immune cells at very low (picogram) concentrations1,2. The proinflammatory mediators (cytokines, leukotrienes, eicosanoids, etc.) produced by the cells in response to an endotoxin are responsible for fever, hypotension, hypertension, and more severe health problems including multiple organ failure1,2,3. The severity of the immune-mediated side-effects tri....
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Protocol
1. Preparation of Nanoparticle Samples
- Prepare the study sample in LAL grade water.
- If the sample pH is outside of the 6-8 range, adjust the pH by using pyrogen-free sodium hydroxide or hydrochloric acid.
- Using LAL grade water prepare several dilutions of the study sample. Make sure that the highest dilution does not exceed maximum valid dilution (MVD). Refer to the discussion section for details about MVD estimation.
2. Preparation of Reagents Common Between LAL Formats
- Dilute concentrated sodium hydroxide stock using pyrogen-free LAL reagent water to prepare a working solution at a concen....
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Results
The example of data generated after testing this formulation in LAL assays is shown in Table 1. PEGylated liposomal doxorubicin interfered with chromogenic LAL at dilution 5. However, this interference was overcome by greater dilutions. Spike recovery was between 50 and 200% when this formulation was tested at dilutions 50 and 500 in turbidity and chromogenic LAL, as well as at dilution 5 in turbidity LAL. When adjusted by the dilution factor, the results were consistent .......
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Discussion
The information provided in this protocol has been described before15,26 and relies on several regulatory documents published by the US Food and Drug Administration (US FDA or FDA) and United States Pharmacopoeia (USP)4,5,6,27, and is also available on the NCL website20 in protocols STE1.2 (turbidity LAL), STE1.3.......
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Disclosures
The authors have nothing to disclose.
Acknowledgements
The study was supported by federal funds from the National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, under contract HHSN261200800001E. The content of this publication does not necessarily reflect the views or policies of the Department of Health and Human Services, nor does mention of trade names, commercial products, or organizations imply endorsement by the U.S. Government.
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Materials
| Name | Company | Catalog Number | Comments |
|---|---|---|---|
| Turbidity LAL Assay | |||
| Sodium Hydroxide | Sigma | S2770 | When needed, it is used to adjust sample pH to be between 6-8 |
| Hydrochloric acid | Sigma | H9892 | When needed, it is used to adjust sample pH to be between 6-8 |
| LAL Reagent | Associates of Cape Cod | T0051 | This reagent can be used with turbidity assay only |
| Control Endotoxin Standard | Associates of Cape Cod | E0005 | This reagent can be used with turbidity and gel-clot assays |
| LAL grade water | Associates of Cape Cod | WP0501 | This reagent can be used with any LAL format |
| Glucashield Buffer | Associates of Cape Cod | GB051-25 | Used to prevent false-positive response from beta-glucans |
| Disposable endotoxin-free glass dilution tubes 12 x 75 mm | Associates of Cape Cod | TB240 | These tubes can be used with all three assays |
| Disposable endotoxin-free glass reaction tubes 8 x 75 mm | Associates of Cape Cod | TK100 | These tubes can be used with turbidity and chromogenic assays |
| Pyrogen-free tips with volumes 0.25 and 1.0 mL | RAININ | PPT25, PPT10 | Tips and pipettes may adsorb endotoxin and release leachables which interfere with LAL assay. These RAININ tips are used because their optimal performance in the LAL assay was verified and confirmed |
| Pyrogen-free microcentrifuge tubes, 2.0 mL | Eppendorf | 22600044 | Other equivalent supplies can be used |
| Pyrogen-fee combitips, 5mL | Eppendorf | 30089669 | Other equivalent supplies can be used |
| Repeat pipettor | Eppendorf | 4982000020 | Other equivalent supplies can be used |
| Microcetrifuge | any brand | Any brand can be used | |
| Refrigerator, 2-8 C | any brand | Any brand can be used | |
| Vortex | any brand | Any brand can be used | |
| Freezer, -20 C | any brand | Any brand can be used | |
| Pyros Kinetix or Pyros Kinetix Flex reader | Associates of Cape Cod | PKF96 | Other instruments can be used. However, LAL reagents and endotoxin standards used in this assay may require optimization. When other instrumentation is used, please refer to the instrument and LAL kit manufacturers for instructions |
| Chromogenic LAL Assay | |||
| Pyrochrome LAL Reagent | Associates of Cape Cod | CG1500-5 | This reagent is specific to the Chromogenic Assay |
| Control Endotoxin Standard | Associates of Cape Cod | EC010 | This standard is different than that used for turbidity and gel-clot LALs; it is optimized for optimal performance in the chromogenic assay |
| Sodium Hydroxide | Sigma | S2770 | When needed, it is used to adjust sample pH to be between 6-8 |
| Hydrochloric acid | Sigma | H9892 | When needed, it is used to adjust sample pH to be between 6-8 |
| LAL grade water | Associates of Cape Cod | WP0501 | This reagent can be used with any LAL format |
| Glucashield Buffer | Associates of Cape Cod | GB051-25 | Used to prevent false-positive response from beta-glucans |
| Disposable endotoxin-free glass dilution tubes 12 x 75 mm | Associates of Cape Cod | TB240 | These tubes can be used with all three assays |
| Disposable endotoxin-free glass reaction tubes 8 x 75 mm | Associates of Cape Cod | TK100 | These tubes can be used with turbidity and chromogenic assays |
| Pyrogen-free tips with volumes 0.25 and 1.0 ml | RAININ | PPT25, PPT10 | Tips and pipettes may adsorb endotoxin and release leachables which interfere with LAL assay. These RAININ tips are used because their optimal performance in the LAL assay was verified and confirmed |
| Pyrogen-free microcentrifuge tubes, 2.0 mL | Eppendorf | 22600044 | Other equivalent supplies can be used |
| Pyrogen-fee combitips, 5mL | Eppendorf | 30089669 | Other equivalent supplies can be used |
| Repeat pipettor | Eppendorf | 4982000020 | Other equivalent supplies can be used |
| Microcetrifuge | any brand | Any brand can be used | |
| Refrigerator, 2-8 C | any brand | Any brand can be used | |
| Vortex | any brand | Any brand can be used | |
| Freezer, -20 C | any brand | Any brand can be used | |
| Pyros Kinetix or Pyros Kinetix Flex reader | Associates of Cape Cod | PKF96 | Other instruments can be used. However, LAL reagents and endotoxin standards used in this assay may require optimization. When other instrumentation is used, please refer to the instrument and LAL kit manufacturers for instructions |
| Gel-Clot LAL Assay | |||
| LAL Reagent | Associates of Cape Cod | G5003 | This reagent is specific to the gel-clot assay |
| Control Endotoxin Standard | Associates of Cape Cod | E0005 | This reagent can be used with turbidity and gel-clot assays |
| Sodium Hydroxide | Sigma | S2770 | When needed, it is used to adjust sample pH to be between 6-8 |
| Hydrochloric acid | Sigma | H9892 | When needed, it is used to adjust sample pH to be between 6-8 |
| LAL grade water | Associates of Cape Cod | WP0501 | This reagent can be used with any LAL format |
| Glucashield Buffer | Associates of Cape Cod | GB051-25 | Used to prevent false-positive response from beta-glucans |
| Disposable endotoxin-free glass dilution tubes 12 x 75 mm | Associates of Cape Cod | TB240 | These tubes can be used with all three assays |
| Disposable endotoxin-free glass reaction tubes 10 x 75 mm | Associates of Cape Cod | TS050 | These tubes are for use with the gel-clot assay |
| Pyrogen-free tips with volumes 0.25 and 1 mL | RAININ | PPT25, PPT10 | Tips and pipettes may adsorb endotoxin and release leachables which interfere with LAL assay. These RAININ tips are used because their optimal performance in the LAL assay was verified and confirmed |
| Pyrogen-free microcentrifuge tubes, 2.0 mL | Eppendorf | 22600044 | Other equivalent supplies can be used |
| Pyrogen-fee combitips, 5mL | Eppendorf | 30089669 | Other equivalent supplies can be used |
| Repeat pipettor | Eppendorf | 4982000020 | Other equivalent supplies can be used |
| Microcetrifuge | any brand | Any brand can be used | |
| Refrigerator, 2-8 C | any brand | Any brand can be used | |
| Vortex | any brand | Any brand can be used | |
| Freezer, -20 C | any brand | Any brand can be used | |
| Water bath, 37 C | any brand | Any brand can be used, however, it is important either to switch off water circulation or use non-circualting water bath because water flow will affect clot formation and lead to false-negative results |
References
- Perkins, D. J., Patel, M. C., Blanco, J. C., Vogel, S. N. Epigenetic Mechanisms Governing Innate Inflammatory Responses. Journal of Interferon & Cytokine Research. 36 (7), 454-461 (2016).
- Vogel, S. N., Awomoyi, A. A., Rallabhandi, P., Medvedev, A. E.
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