3D Printed Porous Cellulose Nanocomposite Hydrogel Scaffolds

Summary

The three critical steps of this protocol are i) developing the right composition and consistency of the cellulose hydrogel ink, ii) 3D printing of scaffolds into various pore structures with good shape fidelity and dimensions and iii) demonstration of the mechanical properties in simulated body conditions for cartilage regeneration.

Abstract

This work demonstrates the use of three-dimensional (3D) printing to produce porous cubic scaffolds using cellulose nanocomposite hydrogel ink, with controlled pore structure and mechanical properties. Cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs, 69.62 wt%) based hydrogel ink with matrix (sodium alginate and gelatin) was developed and 3D printed into scaffolds with uniform and gradient pore structure (110-1,100 µm). The scaffolds showed compression modulus in the range of 0.20-0.45 MPa when tested in simulated in vivo conditions (in distilled water at 37 °C). The pore sizes and the compression modulus of the 3D scaffolds matched with the requirements needed for cartilage regeneration applications. This work demonstrates that the consistency of the ink can be controlled by the concentration of the precursors and porosity can be controlled by the 3D printing process and both of these factors in return defines the mechanical properties of the 3D printed porous hydrogel scaffold. This process method can therefore be used to fabricate structurally and compositionally customized scaffolds according to the specific needs of patients. 

Introduction

Cellulose is a polysaccharide consisting of linear chains of β (1-4) linked D-glucose units. It is the most abundant natural polymer on Earth and is extracted from a variety of sources, including marine animals (e.g., tunicates), plants (e.g., wood, cotton, wheat straw), and bacterial sources, such as algae (e.g., Valonia), fungi, and even amoeba (protozoa)^1,2. Cellulose nanofibers (CNF) and cellulose nanocrystals (CNC) with at least one dimension on nanoscale are obtained through mechanical treatments and acid hydrolysis from cellulose. They not only possess the properties of cellulose, such as potential....

Protocol

1. Preparation of precursors

1. Preparation of cellulose nanocrystals suspension
   NOTE: Isolation of cellulose nanocrystals is done according to the procedure reported by Mathew, et al³⁰.
   1. Dilute 17 wt% suspension of cellulose nanocrystals to 2 wt% by adding distilled water to make a total volume of 2 L. Mix thoroughly using ultra sonication and use smaller batches (250-300 mL) for efficient mixing.
   2. Pass the sonified suspension through the homogenizer 10 times at a pressure of 500-600 bar. At this point, a thick transparent gel of 2 wt% cellulose nanocrystals is obtained.
   3. Concentrate 2 wt% cellulo....

Results

CNCs based nanocomposite hydrogel ink shows a strong non-Newtonian shear thinning behavior (Figure 2a). The apparent viscosity of 1.55 × 10⁵ Pa.s at a low shear rate (0.001 s^-1) drops by five orders of magnitude to a value of 22.60 Pa.s at a shear rate of 50 s^-1 (≈50 s^-1 being a typical shear rate experienced during 3D printing)³¹. The hydrogel ink exhibits a viscoelastic solid behavior, as the storage modul.......

Discussion

3D printing requires suitable rheological properties of the hydrogel ink. The high viscosity ink will require extreme pressures for its extrusion while low viscosity ink will not maintain its shape after extrusion. The viscosity of the hydrogel ink can be controlled through the concentration of the ingredients. As compared to our previous work¹¹, the solid content of the hydrogel ink is increased from 5.4 to 9.9 wt% resulting in concentrated hydrogel ink which helps to improve the resolution of th.......

Materials

List of materials used in this article

Name	Company	Catalog Number	Comments
60 mL syringe	Structur3D Printing
Alginic acid sodium salt	Sigma-Aldrich	9005-38-3
Anhydrous calcium chloride	Sigma-Aldrich	10043-52-4
Clamps, three pronged, Talon	VWR	241-0404	102 mm, Dual adjustment clamp, large, clamp extension 127 mm
Cura 2.4.0	Ultimaker		Free slicing software
Discov3ry Complete	Structur3D Printing		Ultimaker 2+ 3D printer integrated with Discov3ry paste extruder
Gelatin from bovine skin	Sigma-Aldrich	9000-70-8
Glutaraldehyde solution 50 wt. % in H2O	Sigma-Aldrich	111-30-8
homogenizer	SPX	APV-2000
Instron 5960	Instron		Instron 5960, Biopuls Bath, 100 N load cell, 37 °C,
Physica MCR 301 rheometer	Anton Paar		CP25-2-SN7617, gap height 0.05 mm, 25 °C
Sorvall Lynx 6000 centrifuge	AB Ninolab	s/n 41881692	F12-rotor (6x500 ml)
stainless steel nozzle	Structur3D Printing		800, 600 and 400 µm
thingsinverse	MakerBot's		sharing and downloading 3D printable things in form of stl files
ultra sonication	Qsonica, LLC	Q500
Unbarked wood chips	Norway spruce(Picea abies)		dry matter content of 50–55%