Isolation and Purification of Bacterial Extracellular Vesicles from Human Feces Using Density Gradient Centrifugation

Summary

This study describes a method to isolate and purify bacterial extracellular vesicles (BEVs) enriched from human feces via density gradient centrifugation (DGC), identifies the physical characteristics of BEVs from morphology, particle size, and concentration, and discusses the potential applications of the DGC approach in clinical and scientific research.

Abstract

Bacterial extracellular vesicles (BEVs) are nanovesicles derived from bacteria that play an active role in bacteria-bacteria and bacteria-host communication, transferring bioactive molecules such as proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids inherited from the parent bacteria. BEVs derived from the gut microbiota have effects within the gastrointestinal tract and can reach distant organs, resulting in significant implications for physiology and pathology. Theoretical investigations that explore the types, quantities, and roles of BEVs derived from human feces are crucial for understanding the secretion and function of BEVs from the gut microbiota. These investigations also necessitate an improvement in the current strategy for isolating and purifying BEVs.

This study optimized the isolation and purification process of BEVs by establishing two density gradient centrifugation (DGC) modes: Top-down and Bottom-up. The enriched distribution of BEVs was determined in fractions 6 to 8 (F6-F8). The effectiveness of the approach was evaluated based on particle morphology, size, concentration, and protein content. The particle and protein recovery rates were calculated, and the presence of specific markers was analyzed to compare the recovery and purity of the two DGC modes. The results indicated that the Top-down centrifugation mode had lower contamination levels and achieved a recovery rate and purity similar to that of the Bottom-up mode. A centrifugation time of 7 h was sufficient to achieve a fecal BEV concentration of 10⁸/mg.

Apart from feces, this method could be applied to other body fluid types with proper modification according to the differences in components and viscosity. In conclusion, this detailed and reliable protocol would facilitate the standardized isolation and purification of BEVs and thus, lay a foundation for subsequent multi-omics analysis and functional experiments.

Introduction

The gut is widely recognized as the organ harboring the most abundant microbial communities in the human body, with over 90% of bacteria involved in colonization and multiplication^1,2. Extensive evidence has demonstrated that the gut microbiota modulates the gut microenvironment and simultaneously interacts with dysfunction in distant organs, primarily through an impaired intestinal barrier^3,4. Mounting evidence indicates a correlation between the imbalance of gut microbiota and the progression of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD)⁵

Protocol

The Ethics Committee of Nanfang Hospital, Southern Medical University, sanctioned this study, which was conducted with the informed consent of the participants. All methods employed herein adhered to the standard operating guidelines furnished by the International Human Microbiome Standards (IHMS: http://www.microbiome-standards.org/). All subsequent liquid handling procedures were mandated to be carried out within a biosafety cabinet or an ultra-clean bench.

1. Collection and aliquoting of fecal samples

1. Distribute a stool sampler, a sealed bag, and an iced box, and provide comprehensive instructions to the....

Results

Determine the distribution of BEV-enriched fractions
To determine the distribution of bacterial extracellular vesicles (BEVs)-enriched fractions, a blank control was established to measure the absorbance values at OD 340 nm, and the density of each fraction was calculated based on the measurements and iodixanol guidelines (Step 8.1). Table 2 presents the density results, demonstrating that fractions F4 to F9 exhibited densities within the range typically associated with extracellular.......

Discussion

Bacterial extracellular vesicles (BEVs) are lipid-bilayer nanoparticles secreted by bacteria, carrying a wealth of proteins, lipids, nucleic acids, and other bioactive molecules, contributing to mediating the functional effects of bacteria²⁰. BEVs derived from the gut have been verified to be involved in the development of diseases, such as inflammatory bowel disease, Crohn's disease, and colorectal cancer, and also affect general metabolism and mediate impaired cognitive function

Materials

List of materials used in this article

Name	Company	Catalog Number	Comments
1 % (w/v) glutaraldehyde (prepared from 2.5 % stock solution in deionized water)	ACMEC	AP1126	Morphological observation for BEVs using TEM at Step 8.3.3
1 % (w/v) methylcellulose (prepared from original powder in deionized water)	Sigma-Aldrich	M7027	Morphological observation for BEVs using TEM at Step 8.3.6
1.5 % (w/v) uranyl acetate (prepared from original powder in deionized water)	Polysciences	21447-25	Morphological observation for BEVs using TEM at Step 8.3.5
1000 μL, 200 μL, 10 μL Pipette	KIRGEN	KG1313, KG1212, KG1011	Transfer the solution
5 % (w/v) bovine serum albumin solution (prepared from the original powder in TBST buffer)	Fdbio science	FD0030	Used in western blotting for blocking at Step 8.5.6
5 × loading buffer	Fdbio science	FD006	Used in western blotting and Coomassie brilliant blue stain at Step 8.5.1
75 % (v/v) alcohol	LIRCON	LIRCON-500 mL	Surface disinfection
96-well plate	Rar	A8096	Measure the absorbance values
Anti-Calnexin antibody	Abcam	ab92573	Western blotting (Primary Antibody)
Anti-CD63 antibody	Abcam	ab134045	Western blotting (Primary Antibody)
Anti-CD9 antibody	Abcam	ab236630	Western blotting (Primary Antibody)
Anti-Flagellin antibody	Sino Biological	40067-MM06	Western blotting (Primary Antibody)
Anti-Integrin beta 1 antibody	Abcam	ab30394	Western blotting (Primary Antibody)
Anti-LPS antibody	Thermo Fisher	MA1-83152	Western blotting (Primary Antibody)
Anti-LTA antibody	Thermo Fisher	MA1-7402	Western blotting (Primary Antibody)
Anti-OmpA antibody	CUSABIO	CSB-PA359226ZA01EOD, https://www.cusabio.com/	Western blotting (Primary Antibody)
Anti-Syntenin antibody	Abcam	ab133267	Western blotting (Primary Antibody)
Anti-TSG101 antibody	Abcam	ab125011	Western blotting (Primary Antibody)
Autoclave	ZEALWAY	GR110DP	Sterilization for supplies and mediums used in the experiment
Balance	Mettler Toledo	AL104	Balance the tube sample-loaded with PBS
Bicinchoninic acid assay	Fdbio science	FD2001	Measure protein content of BEVs at Step 8.2
BioRender	BioRender	https://app.biorender.com	Make the schematic workflow of BEVs isolation and purification showed in Figure 1
Biosafety cabinet	Haier	HR1200- II B2	Peform the procedures about feces sample handling
Centrifuge 5810 R; Rotor F-34-6-38	Eppendorf	5805000092; 5804727002, adapter: 5804774000	Preprocess for BEVs (Step 3)
Chemiluminescence Apparatus	BIO-OI	OI600SE-MF	Used in western blotting for signal detection at Step 8.5.12
Cytation 5	BioTek	F01	Microplate detector for measuring the absorbance (Step 8.1) and fluorescence (Figure 6) values
Dil-labled low density lipoprotein	ACMEC	AC12038	Definition of distribution of interfering components
Electrophoresis equipment	Bio-rad	1658033	Used in western blotting for protein separation and transfer at Step 8.5.2, 8.5.3, 8.5.5
Enhanced Chemiluminescence kit HRP	Fdbio science	FD8020	Used in western blotting for signal detection at Step 8.5.12
Escherichia coli	American Type Culture Collection	ATCC8739	Isolate BEVs as a positive control. Protocol: Dissolve 25 g of the LB powder in 1 L deionized water, and autoclave. Transfer the 800 μL of preserved Escherichia coli into the medium. Cultivate at 37 °C in the incubator shaker. Then centrifuge at 3, 000 × g for 20 min at 4 °C, 12, 000 × g for 30 min at 4 °C, filter the supernatant through 0.22 μm membrane, and perform ultra-speed centrifugation at 160, 000 × g for 70 min at 4 °C. Pellet defined as crude BEVs from Escherichia coli was suspended in 1.2 mL PBS (Step 3, 4).
Falcon tubes 50 mL	KIRGEN	KG2811	Preprocess for BEVs (Step 3)
Feto Protein Staining Buffer	Absci	ab.001.50	Coomassie brilliant blue staining at Step 8.5.4
Filter paper	Biosharp	BS-TFP-070B	Morphological observation for BEVs using TEM at Step 8.3 (Blotting the solution)
Formvar/Carbon supported copper grids	Sigma-Aldrich	TEM-FCF200CU50	Morphological observation for BEVs using TEM at Step 8.3
HEPES powder	Meilunbio	MB6078	Prepare iodixanol buffers with different concentrations for density gradient centrifugation
HRP AffiniPure Goat Anti-Mouse IgG (H+L)	Fdbio science	FDM007	Western blotting (Secondary Antibody)
HRP AffiniPure Goat Anti-Rabbit IgG (H+L)	Fdbio science	FDR007	Western blotting (Secondary Antibody)
Incubator shaker	Qiangwen	DHZ-L	Cultivate Escherichia coli
Kimwipes™ Delicate Task Wipes	Kimtech Science	34155	Wipe the inner wall of the ultracentrifuge tube at Step 4.15
LB broth	Hopebio	HB0128	Cultivate Escherichia coli
Low temperature freezer (-80 °C)	Haier	DW-86L338J	Store the samples
Methanol	Alalddin	M116118	Used in western blotting for activating PVDF membrane at Step 8.5.5
Micro tubes 1.5 mL	KIRGEN	KG2211	Recover fractions after density gradient centrifugation
Micro tubes 2 mL	KIRGEN	KG2911	Recover fractions after density gradient centrifugation
Micro tubes 5 mL	BBI	F610888-0001	Recover fractions after density gradient centrifugation
Microplate reader	Thermo Fisher	Multiskan MK3	Measure protein content of BEVs at Step 8.2
Millipore filter 0.22 μm	Merck millipore	SLGP033RB	Filtration sterilization; Material: polyethersulfone, PES
NaCl	GHTECH	1.01307.040	Density gradient centrifugation solution
NaOH	GHTECH	1.01394.068	Density gradient centrifugation solution (pH adjustment)
Optima™ XPN-100	Beckman Coulter	A94469	Ultracentrifugation for BEVs isolation at Step 4, 7
OptiPrep™	Serumwerk Bernburg AG	1893	Density gradient centrifugation stock solution
Orbital Shaker	Youning	CS-100	Dissolve feces at Step 2
Phosphate buffered saline	Procell	PB180327	Dissolve feces at Step 2
Pipettor	Eppendorf	3120000267, 3120000259	Transfer the solution
Plastic pasteur pipette	ABCbio	ABC217003-4	Remove supernatant in preprocessing at Step 3.4
Polyvinylidene difluoride (PVDF) membranes	Millipore	ISEQ00010, IPVH00010	Used in western blotting for protein transfer at Step 8.5.5
Prefabricated polyacrylamide gel, 4–20% 15 Wells	ACE	F15420Gel	Used in western blotting for protein separation at Step 8.5.2, 8.5.3
Primary antibody diluent	Fdbio science	FD0040	Used in western blotting at Step 8.5.8
Protein ladder	Fdbio science	FD0672	Used in western blotting and Coomassie brilliant blue stain at Step 8.5
Rapid protein blotting solution	UBIO	UW0500	Used in western blotting for protein transfer at Step 8.5.5
Rotor SW 32 Ti Swinging-Bucket Rotor	Beckman Coulter	369650	Ultracentrifugation for BEVs isolation at Step 4, 7
Syringe 20 mL, 50 mL	Jetway	ZSQ-20ML, YCXWJZSQ-50 mL	Transfer buffers amd remove supernatant in preprocessing
TBS powder	Fdbio science	FD1021	Used in western blotting at Step 8.5
Transmission electron microscope (TEM)	Hitachi	H-7650	Morphological observation for BEVs at Step 8.3
Tween-20	Fdbio science	FD0020	Used in western blotting at Step 8.5
Ultracentrifuge tube	Beckman	326823, 355642	Ultracentrifugation for BEVs isolation at Step 4, 7
Ultra-clean bench	AIRTECH	SW-CJ-2FD	Peform the procedures about liquid handling
Water bath	Bluepard	CU600	Used for measuring protein content of BEVs at Step 8.2.5
ZetaView	Particle Metrix	S/N 21-734, Software ZetaView (version 8.05.14 SP7)	Nanoparticle tracking analysis (NTA) for measuring the particle size and concentrarion of BEVs at Step 8.4