Evidence from a 60 s Jump Protocol in National Wrestlers on Effects of Short-Term Plyometric Fatigue on Visual and Auditory Reaction Performance

Summary

This study examined the effects of a 60 s plyometric fatigue protocol on visual reaction time (VRT) and auditory reaction time (ART) in national wrestlers. Reaction times were assessed before and after the fatigue protocol. The results showed a significant delay in VRT after fatigue, but not on ART.

Abstract

Reaction time is a critical determinant of performance in combat sports, where rapid visual and auditory responses are essential for effective offensive and defensive actions. Acute fatigue induced by high-intensity exercises, such as plyometric jumps, may impair neuromuscular efficiency and sensory-motor integration, thereby affecting reaction performance. This study aimed to investigate the effects of a short-term plyometric fatigue protocol on visual reaction time (VRT) and auditory reaction time (ART) in competitive wrestlers. A total of 36 male U17 National Team Wrestlers (age: 16.2 ± 0.77 years; training experience: 7.2 ± 1.8 years) participated in a repeated-measures study design. VRT and ART were measured before and immediately after a 60 s continuous plyometric jump protocol designed to induce acute fatigue. Reaction times were assessed separately for the right, left, and both sides using a standardized computerized test. Data were analyzed using repeated-measures ANOVA, and effect sizes were calculated using partial eta-squared (η²p). VRT significantly delayed post-fatigue (Both: p=0.019, η²p=0.147; Right: p=0.002, η²p=0.250; Left: p<0.001, η²p=0.273), indicating slower visual responses following the fatigue protocol. In contrast, ART showed no significant changes across any condition (all p>0.19, η²p≤0.048). Short-term plyometric fatigue negatively affects visual reaction performance but does not influence auditory reaction time in wrestlers. These findings suggest that acute fatigue primarily disrupts visual-motor pathways, which may have implications for training and match preparation in combat sports.

Introduction

Wrestling is a dynamic combat sport that requires a combination of high physical strength and rapid mental agility¹. Characterized by repeated high-intensity efforts and short recovery times, wrestling is also a strategic and high-powered competitive fighting sport². In addition to strength, endurance, and technical skills, performance also depends on rapid cognitive processing and neuromotor responsiveness in wrestling³. Athletes need to perceive and interpret sensory information under dynamic, often complicated conditions, and react with precise, quick physical responses⁴.

Among perceptual-cognitive skills, reaction time (RT) plays a key role, as it affects performance in both offensive and defensive situations during competition⁵. Reaction time is commonly divided into visual reaction time (VRT) and auditory reaction time (ART)⁶. VRT responses to visual cues and auditory reaction time (ART) responses to sound stimuli^4,7. These two sensory-motor processes are among the fundamental components of sports performance, particularly in terms of rapid decision-making, timely execution, and gaining an advantage over an opponent⁸. In wrestling, both reaction times are crucial, as they directly impact wrestlers' technical and tactical success during competition⁹. Visual parameters help anticipatory movement, grip adjustments, and spatial orientation, while auditory parameters serve as external regulators during match initiation or restarts¹⁰. Empirical studies consistently show that ART is faster than VRT^11,12. This difference may be attributed to the shorter neural transmission pathways and lower cortical processing demands of the auditory system compared to the visual system¹².

Reaction time is an important parameter for athletes, although reaction time is not a fixed characteristic¹³. One of the most important factors affecting reaction time is fatigue^14,15. Acute fatigue, especially after high-intensity loads, reduces neuromuscular efficiency and may affect reaction time^15,16. Wrestling is a contact sport, and fatigue can occur quickly due to the anaerobic nature of the repetitive explosive movements, such as holding, pulling, pushing, takedown, countering, and throwing during competition¹⁷. Fatigue affects both central and muscular systems, leading to delayed stimulus detection, impaired attentional focus, slower motor unit recruitment, and longer RTs^4,18,19,20. Interestingly, research suggests that fatigue may equally not impact all sensory modalities²¹. The visual system involves multiple brain areas, including the occipital, parietal, and prefrontal cortices, and is more sensitive to central fatigue-related disruptions²². In contrast, the auditory system appears more resilient under similar fatigue conditions because of its more direct thalamo-cortical pathways²³. This modality-specific vulnerability highlights the importance of evaluating both VRT and ART under fatigue to fully understand their impact on athletic performance²⁴.

Previous studies examining the effects of fatigue on RT in athletes have reported inconsistent or inconclusive results^25,26,27. The main reason for the different results may be due to the differences in fatigue protocols and also the lack of modality distinction or variability in athlete populations. Additionally, many studies have focused on striking sports (e.g., boxing, taekwondo), leaving a gap in the literature for grappling-based disciplines such as wrestling. This study examined reaction times while addressing these limitations using a standardized 60 s plyometric fatigue protocol, designed to reflect the short-duration, high-intensity neuromuscular demands typical of wrestling. Plyometric tasks were selected due to their relevance to wrestling-specific neuromuscular loads and their efficiency in inducing fatigue within a brief timeframe²⁸. This protocol was also chosen for its ecological validity and proven capacity to induce fatigue in a time-efficient, field-applicable manner¹⁵. The study uniquely assessed both VRT and ART before and after fatigue in a homogenous sample of elite U17 wrestlers, allowing for a direct, within-subject comparison of sensory modality-specific effects. By integrating perspectives from sport physiology, neuroscience, and applied performance science, this research aims to explain how plyometric fatigue alters sensory-motor processing in youth wrestling athletes. In this context, the aim of the study is to compare both visual and auditory reaction times in the context of a standardized 60 s maximal plyometric protocol to simulate real-match fatigue.

Protocol

​The study protocol adhered to the ethical principles outlined in the Declaration of Helsinki and was approved by the Ethics Committee of Atatürk University Sport Sciences (Approval No: 163(E-70400699-000-2500273534); Date: 21/08/2025). All participants provided written informed consent.

Participants

A total of 36 male U17 wrestlers (age: 16.2 ± 0.77 years; height: 170 ± 6.66 cm; weight: 67.5 ± 16.9 kg) volunteered to participate in this study (Table 1). All participants were actively competitive athletes and had maintained a consistent training regimen of 8-12 h per week for at least the preceding 3 years, ensuring a homogeneous cohort with well-developed reaction capacities. Participants were thoroughly briefed on the study's purpose, procedures, potential risks, and benefits, after which they provided written informed consent. To minimize potential confounding variables, participants were instructed to maintain habitual dietary patterns and abstain from engaging in strenuous physical activity for at least 48 h prior to each testing session throughout the duration of the study. Exclusion criteria included the following: use of nutritional supplements or ergogenic aids (e.g., creatine, caffeine, or bicarbonate) within the past 4 weeks, ongoing medical treatment that might influence metabolic or performance outcomes, a previous diagnosis with visual and/or hearing impairment.

A post-hoc power analysis was performed using G*Power 3.1 for estimating the required sample size and achieving statistical power in hypothesis testing, employing a two-tailed test with an α = 0.05. The required sample size was calculated as 36 participants to achieve a statistical power of 0.80²⁹. As a result, the sample size was considered sufficient to detect meaningful differences because all values exceeded the commonly accepted threshold of 0.80.

Experimental procedure

The experimental procedure began with a familiarization session conducted prior to all measurements. To compare visual and auditory reaction times between the control and experimental conditions, a repeated-measures pre-post design was used. All participants performed visual and auditory reaction tests 2x following a familiarization session. Although heart rate and blood lactate were not measured, fatigue was verified using repeated jump height fatigue index (RJH-FI), repeated jump power fatigue index (RJP-FI), and Borg Scale of Perceived Exertion (BSP), which collectively confirmed substantial neuromuscular fatigue.

Visual and auditory reaction tests were conducted using a common approach of 3x with full concentration in both control and experimental conditions. The conditions were separated by 2-3 days and completed within 5 days. The warm-up consisted of 5 min of low-intensity running followed by dynamic stretching exercises targeting the lower extremities. High-intensity movements were deliberately avoided to prevent blood lactate accumulation and fatigue. Readiness for testing was confirmed by the absence of visible fatigue signs and stable jumping mechanics during practice trials. Reaction tests were initiated immediately after the warm-up. A 1 m Optojump system was used for reaction tests, visual and auditory (see Table of Materials).

For visual reaction tests, a 32-inch monitor was positioned directly in front of the participant at eye level and at a standardized distance of approximately 1.5 m. Visual stimuli were presented on the monitor, and participants were instructed to respond as quickly as possible following stimulus onset. For auditory reaction tests, a 300 W speaker was positioned in front of the participant at the same distance, and standardized auditory stimuli were delivered at a consistent volume level. Reaction time was recorded automatically by the software following stimulus detection and movement initiation. Each reaction test was performed 3x under both control and experimental conditions. A brief standardized rest interval was provided between trials. The best performance value obtained from the three trials was retained for statistical analysis. Anthropometric measurements were conducted using standardized methods. Height was measured with a portable stadiometer (see Table of Materials). Body mass and body fat were assessed using air displacement plethysmography calibrated according to the manufacturer's guidelines³⁰ (see Table of Materials).

On the 1^st testing day, baseline visual and auditory reaction times were measured separately for both legs, followed by anthropometric assessments. On the 2^nd testing day, after completion of the standardized warm-up, a 60 s repeated jump protocol was performed, and successful protocol completion was confirmed by a measurable decline in jump height and power output across repetitions, as reflected by RJH-FI, RJP-FI values, and BSP. Immediately following the completion of the jumping protocol, without any rest interval, visual and auditory reaction times were measured again using the same procedures.

Reaction time was defined as the time elapsed between stimulus presentation and the initiation of a rapid unilateral foot lift from the contact surface, as in previous studies^31,32, allowing separate assessment of right, left, and bilateral responses.

The experimental procedure concluded with the completion of all post-exercise visual and auditory reaction time measurements on the 2^nd testing day. No data processing or statistical analysis was performed during the execution of the experimental protocol.

Statistical analysis

The data were analyzed using SPSS version 27.0. Data normality was verified using the Shapiro-Wilk test. Performance variables were compared using the repeated-measure ANOVA to control for the differences between control and experimental conditions. The alpha level was set at 0.05 for all analyses. Partial eta-squared values were interpreted according to Cohen's benchmarks, where η²p = 0.01 represents a small effect, 0.06 a medium effect, and ≥0.14 a large effect. The data are reported as mean ± standard deviation.

Results

The findings of this study demonstrate the effects of a 60 s plyometric fatigue protocol on visual and auditory reaction times in elite U17 wrestlers. Visual reaction time (VRT) results indicated that the mean reaction time for both legs, measured from 444 ± 44.9 ms in the pre-fatigue control condition, increased to 467 ± 48.6ms post-fatigue condition, representing a significant increase of 5.18% (p=0.019). For the right leg, VRT increased from 400 ± 29.5 ms in the pre-fatigue control condition to 420 ± 35.2 ms in the po...

Discussion

The present study examined the acute effects of a 60 s plyometric fatigue protocol on visual (VRT) and auditory reaction time (ART) in elite U17 wrestlers. The main finding was that VRT significantly deteriorated following the fatigue intervention, whereas ART remained unaffected (Table 1 and Figure 1). This modality-specific sensory-motor response suggests that acute neuromuscular fatigue has modality-specific effects, likely linked to the distinct neuroanatomical and physi...

Materials

List of materials used in this article

Name	Company	Catalog Number	Comments
Bodpod	Cosmed		The BOD POD Gold Standard body composition monitoring system is an air volume plethysmography system used to determine body composition (fat and lean tissue) in adults and children, which can vary across different populations. The entire test takes only 5 minutes. It provides highly accurate, safe, comfortable, and rapid test results. Each BOD POD Gold Standard is a complete system with a dedicated computer system, thoracic gas volume (TGV) measurement capability, and data management features.
Optojump Next (1meter)	Microgate	Version 1.13.0	In this configuration OptoJump Next makes it possible to perform jump tests, reaction tests and running tests (if mounted on a treadmill). The data that can be obtained are:contact times, flight times, reaction time to a sound/visual impulse, elevation of centre of gravity, specific power (W/Kg), frequency, energy expended (J), jump height. Thanks to these data and video analysis, the operator quickly evaluates the athlete’s explosive and elastic force and tolerance of different kinds of effort, and his/her posture and technique. Moreover, the possibility of performing reaction tests, configuring them freely, makes it possible to compare the results of tests performed in normal situations with those obtained under stress. In addition, if mounted on a treadmill, Optojump Next also generates the data typical of the analysis of a run, also those of a long one (for example, step length). The single meter can be powered by both battery (about 8 hours’ autonomous use) and from the mains.
Stadiometer	Holtain Ltd.		The stadiometer is a counter recording instrument, with an effortless counter balanced movement. It will give an accurate and direct reading, to the nearest millimetre over a range of 600 mm to 2100 mm. Provides direct readings to the nearest millimeter.