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07:59
Lower Back Exam
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2015
Source: Robert E. Sallis, MD. Kaiser Permanente, Fontana, California, USA The back is the most common source of pain in the body. Examination of the back can be a challenge due to its numerous structures, including the bones, discs, ligaments, nerves, and muscles-all of which can generate pain. Sometimes, the location of the pain can be suggestive of etiology. The essential components of the lower back exam include inspection and palpation for signs of deformity and inflammation, evaluation of...
07:38
Shoulder Exam II
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2015
Source: Robert E. Sallis, MD. Kaiser Permanente, Fontana, California, USA The shoulder exam continues by checking the strength of the rotator cuff muscles and biceps tendons. The rotator cuff muscles (supraspinatus, infraspinatus, teres minor, and subscapularis) act as compressors, holding the humeral head in place against the glenoid. Injury and degeneration of the rotator cuff tendons are the most common sources of shoulder pain. The strength testing of the rotator muscle is performed by...
08:33
Ankle Exam
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2023
Source: Robert E. Sallis, MD. Kaiser Permanente, Fontana, California, USA The ankle and foot provide the foundation for the body and the stability needed for upright posture and ambulation. Because of its weight-bearing function, the ankle joint is a common site of injury among athletes and in the general population. Ankle injuries occur as a result of both acute trauma and repetitive overuse (such as running). The ankle is a fairly simple joint, consisting of the articulation between the...
10:09
Elbow Exam
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2023
Source: Robert E. Sallis, MD. Kaiser Permanente, Fontana, California, USA The elbow is a hinged joint that involves the articulation of 3 bones: the humerus, radius, and ulna. It is a much more stable joint than the shoulder, and because of that, the elbow has less range of motion. The elbow and its structures are prone to significant injuries, particularly with repetitive motion. Lateral and medial epicondylitis (also called tennis elbow and golfer's elbow) are two common diagnoses and often...
08:57
Shoulder Exam I
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2023
Source: Robert E. Sallis, MD. Kaiser Permanente, Fontana, California, USA Examination of the shoulder can be complex, because it actually consists of four separate joints: are the glenohumeral (GH) joint, the acromioclavicular (AC) joint, the sternoclavicular joint, and the scapulothoracic joint. The GH joint is primarily responsible for shoulder motion and is the most mobile joint in the body. It has been likened to a golf ball sitting on a tee and is prone to instability. It is held in place...
FAQs
Ninhydrin reacts with a free primary amino group through oxidative deamination followed by condensation, producing a deeply colored blue or blue-purple chromophore. The visible color therefore reflects the presence of an available amino group rather than merely the presence of amino-acid material. This chemical response makes the assay useful for following whether reactive amines remain during synthesis.
The assay distinguishes amine types through their different reactions with ninhydrin. Free primary amines produce the characteristic deep blue or blue-purple chromophore, whereas secondary amines may generate a different color response. Consequently, interpreting the observed color requires attention to the type of amino group present, especially when assessing protected or partially modified synthetic intermediates.
A positive color response indicates that an amino group remains free and unprotected after a coupling operation. In solid-phase peptide synthesis, this finding suggests that the preceding coupling has not consumed every reactive site. The result gives a rapid chemical check on reaction completion and can reveal when the synthetic sequence requires further optimization.
During solid-phase peptide synthesis, researchers use the color reaction after coupling to check whether unreacted amino groups remain. A visible response signals residual free amines and may prompt an additional coupling cycle, while the absence of the relevant response supports completion under the assay conditions. This makes the test a practical checkpoint within the workflow.
The assay supports optimization by linking a rapid visual observation to the success of a coupling step. If free amino groups remain, researchers can identify the affected stage and consider additional coupling cycles rather than proceeding without confirmation. Its immediate readout helps streamline reaction monitoring and provides a simple quality-control measure for synthetic chemistry.
The colorimetric readout allows researchers to evaluate the reaction quickly without relying only on a later assessment of the completed product. Blue or blue-purple coloration provides an immediate indication of free primary amines, while other color behavior can reflect secondary amines. This speed is particularly useful for monitoring successive operations in peptide synthesis and adjusting the workflow promptly.