Name: how genome size shapes new genes
Uploaded: 2020-11-23T11:47:33.000Z
Duration: 3 min 21 s
Channel: JoVE

K12 Standards

north-carolina-k-12-science-standard-course-of-study

NC K-12 Science Standard Course of Study

9-12

Biology

Biological Evolution- Unity and Diversity

LS.Bio.9.2

genome-size-and-the-evolution-of-new-genes

Genome Size and the Evolution of New Genes

Genetik kodun basit yapısına rağmen genom boyutu açısından önemli farklılıklar vardır;bu fark 160.000 baz çiftinden daha azına sahip proteobakteriler Candidatus Carsonella ruddii de dahil olmak üzere bilinen en küçük genomlardan, yaklaşık 150 milyar çifte sahip Japon çiçekli bitkisi Paris japonica gibi en büyüğüne kadar değişebilir. Bu aşırı uçlara rağmen, bakteri ve arkelerin genomlarında genellikle yaklaşık 3.000 gen bulunur. Prokaryotlarda kodlayıcı olmayan dizi sayısı neredeyse sıfır olduğundan, bu onların genomlarının, ökaryotlara kıyasla nispeten daha küçük olabileceği anlamına gelir.Daha küçük genom, aynı zamanda, hücre bölünmesinin her turunda daha az kopyalanacak şey olacağı anlamına gelir;bu da hızlı üreme için lojistik olarak uygundur. Ökaryotlar tipik olarak 20.000 civarında gene sahiptir, ancak genomlarının arasında kodlamayan dizilerden oluşan uzun parçalar bulunmaktadır, yani genomlarının büyük olması kompleks oldukları anlamına gelmeyebilir. Paris japonica genomu, insan genomundan 50 kat büyük olabilir;ancak bu, daha fazla yeni genden değil, kısmen büyük miktarlarda kodlamayan diziden ve muhtemelen yüksek düzeyde duplikasyondan kaynaklanmaktadır.Peki organizmalar nasıl evrimleşerek yeni genler kazanıyor? Cevap genellikle zaten var olan dizinin değiştirilmesidir. Yeni genlerin evrimleşmesi için ana kaynaklardan biri, gen duplikasyonudur.Bir gen içeren bir DNA bölümünün yanlışlıkla duplikasyona uğradığını düşünelim. Bu durumda organizmada mevcut bir genin ikinci bir kopyası bulunacaktır. Bu tür yeni gen kopyaları, işlevi sürdürmek için orijinalinde bulunan kısıtlamalardan muaftır.Dolayısıyla farklılaşabilirler;evrimleşerek yeni bir rol veya orijinalinkinden farklı bir işlev kazanma potansiyeline sahiptirler. Yeni genler yaratılmasının bir başka yolu da mevcut bir genin veya gen kopyasının parçalarının ayrıldığı ve farklı bir geninkilere katılmak için hareket ettiği ve yeni bir işlev üstlenebilecek hibrit bir gen oluşturduğu DNA karıştırmasıdır. Bir gen dizisinde zamanla mutasyonlarla ortaya çıkan değişiklikler olan intragenik mutasyon, birçok yeni genin kaynağıdır.Bu ayrışma birbirinden bağımsız olarak ayrışan türleri veya soyları karşılaştırırken en belirgin olarak görülür. Bu ayrışma belirli bir noktanın ötesine geçtiğinde veya bir gen yeni bir işlev üstlendiğinde, tamamen farklı genler olarak sınıflandırılabilirler. Son olarak, yatay gen transferi, diğer bireyler ve hatta diğer türler gibi dış kaynaklardan genoma yeni genler ve diziler getirir.Bu şekildeki yeni gen edinimi, en çok prokaryotlarda ve arkelerde yaygındır ve antibiyotik direnci genlerinin transferi bunun çok bilinen bir örneğidir. Bu olay ökaryotlarda nadir olmakla birlikte, yine de genetik yeniliğin temel bir kaynağı olarak görülmektedir. Ve genetik materyal, bu örnekteki bakteri ve mantarlar gibi uzak akraba türlerden bile alınabilir.

genom boyutu ve yeni genlerin evrimi

Her canlı organizmanın bir tür genomu (RNA veya DNA gibi) olmasına rağmen, bu planların boyutlarında önemli farklılıklar vardır. Genom boyutunu etkileyen önemli faktörlerden biri organizmanın prokaryotik mi yoksa ökaryotik mi olduğudur. Prokaryotlarda genom, kodlayıcı olmayan diziyi çok az içerir veya hiç içermez; böylece genler, kromozom boyunca sırayla gruplar veya operonlar halinde sıkı bir şekilde kümelenir. Tersine, ökaryotlardaki genler, kodlamayan dizilerin uzun bölümleriyle noktalanmıştır. Genel olarak bu, prokaryotik genomların ortalama olarak ökaryotlarınkinden daha küçük olma (yani daha az baz içerme) eğiliminde olduğu olgusuna katkıda bulunur. Bu gözlem göz önüne alındığında, bilinen en küçük genomların çoğunlukla prokaryot olması şaşırtıcı değildir. Örneğin Candidatus Carsonella Rudii, genom büyüklüğü yalnızca 160 bin baz çifti olan oldukça basitleştirilmiş bir proteobakteridir. Yaşam için gerekli proteinleri sentezlemek için ihtiyaç duyduğu genlerin çoğunu kaybetmiş, zorunlu bir hücre içi simbiyont olarak gelişmiştir. Spektrumun diğer ucunda ise ökaryot Japon çiçekli bitkisi Paris japonica, yaklaşık 150 milyar baz çiftiyle bilinen en büyük genomlardan biridir. Bunun kodladığı genlerin sayısı bilinmemekle birlikte, genom çok büyük miktarda duplikasyon (kopyalama) ve kodlamayan dizi göstermektedir. Ortalama bir prokaryotun genomunda yaklaşık 3000 gen bulunur. Ortalama ökaryotta 20.000 civarında bir sayıda bulunur. Ancak genom boyutu, özellikle ökaryotlarda, büyük ölçüde kodlamayan dizinin miktarından dolayı son derece değişkendir. Yeni Genlerin Yaratılışı Yeni genler geliştirmek için organizmaların birkaç ana seçeneği vardır. Bunların çoğunun ortak noktası, halihazırda var olan dizileri değiştirmeleridir. Duplikasyon (kopyalama), yeni genlerin yaratılmasında önemli bir rol oynar ve bu yeni dizilerle sonuçlanabilecek birkaç kopyalama türü vardır. Gen kopyalamasında, bir geni içeren DNA'nın bir bölümü kopyalanır. Bu ikinci kopya, birinciyi kısıtlayan seçim baskısıyla karşı karşıya değildir ve bu nedenle farklılaşabilir. Zamanla bu, yeni rollere sahip yeni genlerin evrimine yol açabilir. Başka bir kopyalama türü - DNA karıştırma - bir genin yalnızca bir bölümünün kopyalanması ve başka bir gene katılmasıyla sonuçlanabilir. Bu, yeni ürünlerle yeni genlerin yaratılmasıyla sonuçlanabilir. Bazen yeni genler zaman içinde biriken mutasyonlardan evrimleşir. Bu, intragenik (kalıt içi) mutasyon olarak bilinir ve en çok türler veya farklı popülasyonlar arasında karşılaştırma yapılırken fark edilir. Son olarak, yatay gen transferi olarak bilinen bir süreçte dış kaynaklardan yeni genler elde etmek de mümkündür. Bu, genetik materyalin bazen aynı türün diğer bireylerinden, ancak aynı zamanda potansiyel olarak tamamen başka bir türden de dahil edilebileceği anlamına gelir. Bu, prokaryotlarda ve arkelerde sık görülen yeni genlerin kaynağıdır. Ökaryotlarda daha az yaygındır, ancak meydana geldiği gösterilmiştir ve ökaryotlar bakteri veya mantar gibi uzak kaynaklardan bile genetik bilgi alabilir.

Genom Boyutu ve Yeni Genlerin Evrimi

Her canlı organizmanın bir tür genomu (RNA veya DNA) olsa da, bu planların boyutlarında önemli farklılıklar vardır. Bir büyük ...

Education

JoVE Core

Molecular Biology

Moleküler Biyoloji

Unit 1

Ünite 1

DNA, Cells, and Evolution

DNA, Hücreler ve Evrim

KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS

TEMEL TERİMLER VE KAVRAMLAR

how genome size shapes new genes

Genome size can vary widely, and it also helps show how new genes form. Every living organism has a genome, whether it uses RNA or DNA. Yet the size of that genome can be very different from one organism to another.

One major difference is whether the organism is prokaryotic or eukaryotic. Prokaryotic genomes usually have little to no non-coding sequence, which means genes are packed closely together in operons along the chromosome. Eukaryotic genomes contain long stretches of non-coding DNA between genes. This helps explain why prokaryotic genomes are often smaller than eukaryotic genomes.

The smallest known genomes are mostly prokaryotic. One example is Candidatus Carsonella rudii, a highly simplified proteobacterium with a genome of only 160 thousand base-pairs. It has lost many genes needed to make life-essential proteins, so it now lives as an obligate intracellular symbiont. On the other end of the range, the Japanese flowering plant Paris japonica has one of the largest known genomes, at about 150 billion base-pairs. Its genome contains extensive duplication and non-coding sequence, and the number of genes it encodes is not known.

Gene counts also differ between these groups. An average prokaryote has roughly 3,000 genes. An average eukaryote has around 20,000 genes. Even so, genome size in eukaryotes can vary a great deal because of how much non-coding DNA they contain.

New genes usually arise by changing sequences that already exist. Gene duplication copies a DNA segment that contains a gene. The extra copy is not under the same selection pressure as the original, so it can change over time and take on a new role. DNA shuffling can duplicate only part of a gene and join it to another gene, which can create a new gene product.

New genes can also appear through intragenic mutation, which means mutations build up within a gene over time. This is often seen when comparing different species or populations that have diverged. Another source is horizontal gene transfer, where genetic material comes from another individual or even another species. This is a common way for prokaryotes and archaea to gain novel genes, although it can also happen in eukaryotes, including gene transfers from bacteria or fungi.

How Genome Size Shapes New Genes

the dna helix

DNA Structure and Base Pairing

DNA has a helical structure that helps store genetic information. The double helix is the shape formed by two strands that twist around each other. This structure is a key feature of DNA in cells. The two strands are held together by base pairing. Bases on one strand match with bases on the other strand in a regular way. This pairing helps keep the DNA molecule stable and organized. The helix shape also helps explain how DNA fits into chromosomes and carries instructions for living things. By...

the central dogma

DNA to Protein: Central Dogma Steps

The central dogma explains how genetic information moves from DNA to RNA to protein. This flow is a key idea in molecular biology. It helps show how cells use genes to make the molecules that carry out work. DNA stores the instructions for making proteins. During transcription, a gene in DNA is copied into RNA. The RNA then carries that message to the next stage. In translation, the RNA message is used to build a protein. Proteins do much of the cell’s work, so this process connects genes to...

prokaryotic cells

Inside Prokaryotic Cell Structure

Prokaryotic cells have a simple internal structure compared with many other cells. They are usually divided into two groups: bacteria and archaea. These cells have no nucleus, so their DNA is not enclosed in a membrane-bound compartment. Instead, the genetic material is found in the nucleoid, a region where the DNA is located in the cell. Some prokaryotic cells also contain plasmids, which are small extra DNA molecules. A capsule may surround the cell and provide an additional outer layer. <br...

eukaryotic compartmentalization

Cell Compartments in Eukaryotes

Eukaryotic cells use compartments to organize many different jobs inside one cell. These compartments help separate processes so they can happen in the right place. The compartment called the cytosol is the fluid part of the cell. It surrounds the other internal structures and helps support many cell processes. Inside the cell, membrane-bound organelles create distinct microenvironments. A microenvironment is a small internal space with conditions that fit a specific task. This separation...

the tree of life - bacteria, archaea, eukaryotes

the-tree-of-life-bacteria-archaea-eukaryotes

How Life Is Classified Into Three Domains

The tree of life shows how organisms are related through evolution. Its root represents the common ancestor of all life on Earth. From that point, branches spread out like a tree. The tips of the branches represent living, or extant, species. Species that no longer exist, called extinct species, appear closer to the center of the tree. Today, these organisms are grouped into three domains: bacteria, archaea, and eukaryotes. Scientists still debate these divisions, so the tree of life keeps...

mutations

How Mutations Change DNA

Mutations are changes in DNA. They can alter the genetic code and affect how genes work. In high school biology, students often study mutations to understand how DNA changes can influence traits. The transcript focuses on two common mutation types: point mutations and frameshift mutations. A point mutation changes one nucleotide, which is one DNA building block. A frameshift mutation happens when nucleotides are added or removed and the reading frame shifts. These changes matter because they...

gene evolution - fast or slow?

Why Some Gene Regions Evolve Faster

Gene regions do not all change at the same rate. In eukaryotes, long stretches of DNA do not code for proteins or RNAs. Some of these non-coding regions include important regulatory sequences, but most have no known function. Because little or no selection pressure acts on them, they often change the fastest over evolutionary time. Protein-coding regions usually evolve more slowly. A change in a coding sequence can alter a protein and make it less effective at doing its job. That creates...

genome size and the evolution of new genes

Genome size can vary widely, and it also helps show how new genes form. Every living organism has a genome, whether it uses RNA or DNA. Yet the size of that genome can be very different from one organism to another. One major difference is whether the organism is prokaryotic or eukaryotic. Prokaryotic genomes usually have little to no non-coding sequence, which means genes are packed closely together in operons along the chromosome. Eukaryotic genomes contain long stretches of non-coding DNA...

gene families

How Gene Families Evolve and Diversify

Gene families are groups of genes that are thought to come from a shared ancestor. They usually form when a gene is copied by mistake during cell division. The original gene stays under selection pressure to keep its job, while the extra copy can change more quickly over time. Some copied genes gain a new role in the organism. When that happens, they are called paralogs, which are two genes in the same species that evolved from one common ancestral gene. Gene families also include orthologs,...

types of genetic transfer between organisms

types-of-genetic-transfer-between-organisms

How Genes Move Within and Across Generations

Genetic transfer is the movement of genetic information from one organism to another. It happens in two main ways: vertical gene transfer and horizontal gene transfer. Vertical gene transfer moves genes from one generation to the next. It is much more common than horizontal gene transfer. Vertical gene transfer happens during both sexual reproduction and asexual reproduction. In both cases, one or more organisms pass some or all of their genome to their offspring. This kind of transfer occurs...

key terms and concepts

Compare prokaryotic and eukaryotic genome sizes, then see how gene duplication, DNA shuffling, mutation, and horizontal gene transfer create new genes.

How Genome Size Shapes New Genes | JoVE K12

molecular biology

JoVE Core Moleküler Biyoloji, hücrenin moleküler süreçlerini açık ve özlü animasyonlu video dersleriyle sergiler. Buna ek olarak, bilim insanı-eylem videolarında, bu kavramların uygulaması modern laboratuvarlarda gerçek deneylerle gösterilmektedir.

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New Jersey Student Learning Standards for Science

High School

Life Science

heredity-inheritance-and-variation-of-traits

Heredity: Inheritance and Variation of Traits

HS-LS3-1

Florida Department of Education

SC.912.L.15

SC.912.L.15.2

Development of Antibiotic Resistance

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Understanding Species and Reproductive Barriers

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Formation of Species

Speciation describes the formation of one or more new species from one or sometimes multiple original species. The resulting species are discrete from the ...

Speciation Rates

Speciation can proceed at markedly different rates, and evolutionary biologists commonly describe these differences through the models of gradualism and ...

Genetics of Speciation

Speciation is the evolutionary process resulting in the formation of new, distinct species&#x2014;groups of reproductively isolated populations.The ...

Hybrid Zones

Hybrid zones are narrow regions where two closely related species interact, mate, and produce hybrids. Relative to either parent species, hybrids may ...

What is Natural Selection?

Natural selection is an evolutionary process in which individuals with survival-promoting traits reproduce at higher rates. These favorable traits become ...

Types of Selection

Natural selection influences the frequencies of particular alleles and phenotypes within populations in several different ways. Primarily, natural ...

Frequency-dependent Selection

When the fitness of a trait is influenced by how common it is (i.e., its frequency) relative to different traits within a population, this is referred to ...

Limits to Natural Selection

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Natural Selection

Fitness
Widespread variation of phenotypes in natural populations provides the raw material for evolution, which is the change in the inherited traits of ...

Simulating Natural Selection
ExpandTo prepare for the lab, set out workstations for each student pair containing 6 white, 6 black, and 13 gray 12 inch ...

Simulating Natural Selection
ExpandTo begin, cut the white, black, and gray pipe cleaners into quarters, which should produce a total of 100 pieces that ...

Artificial Selection

Natural Selection and Adaptive Evolution
In natural settings, adaptive evolution takes place by natural selection, a process in which differences in ...

Observing Artificial Selection in Plants
ExpandTwo weeks before beginning the pollination experiments, collect a sufficient amount of small pots with a ...

Observing Artificial Selection in Plants 
ExpandTo begin the experiment, collect five two-week old grown plants from the generation one population that ...

Analyze and interpret data to summarize how various factors such as geographic isolation, pesticide resistance, antibiotic resistance can influence natural selection.

LS.Bio.9.1

Phylogenetic Trees

Phylogenetic trees come in many forms. It matters in which sequence the organisms are arranged from the bottom to the top of the tree, but the branches ...

Conditions on Early Earth

Around 4 billion years ago, oceans began to condense on earth while volcanic eruptions released nitrogen, carbon dioxide, methane, ammonia, and hydrogen ...

The Colonization of Land

Changes in the environment of the early Earth drove the evolution of organisms. As prokaryotic organisms in the oceans began to photosynthesize, they ...

What is Evolutionary History?

Scientists record evolutionary history by analyzing fossil, morphological, and genetic data. The fossil record documents the history of life on Earth and ...

The Evidence for Evolution

Genetic variations accumulating within populations over generations give rise to biological evolution. Evolutionary changes can result in the formation of ...

The Fossil Record

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Convergent Evolution

Evolution shapes the features of organisms over time, ensuring that they are suited for the environments in which they live. Sometimes, selection pressure ...

Gene Evolution - Fast or Slow?

The genomes of eukaryotes are punctuated by long stretches of sequence which do not code for proteins or RNAs. Although some of these regions do contain ...

While every living organism has a genome of some kind (be it RNA, or DNA), there is considerable variation in the sizes of these blueprints. One major ...

Gene Families

Gene families consist of groups of genes proposed to have originated from a common ancestor. Typically these arise through events in which a gene or genes ...

Types of Genetic Transfer Between Organisms

Genetic transfer occurs when genetic information is passed from one organism to another. It occurs via two mechanisms: vertical gene transfer and ...

Ribozymes

The term ribozyme is used for RNA that can act as an enzyme. Ribozymes are mainly found in selected viruses, bacteria, plant organelles, and lower ...

Construct an explanation to illustrate how common ancestry and biological evolution are supported by multiple lines of empirical evidence.

Use models to illustrate the conditions required for natural selection, including the overproduction of offspring, inherited variation, and the struggle to survive.

LS.Bio.9.3

Construct an explanation to explain how natural selection leads to adaptations within populations.

LS.Bio.9.4

Extinction

The History of Life on Earth
Fossils of organisms that were different from anything alive today had been documented as early as the 17th century, but it ...

Diversity and Extinction during the Paleogene Epoch
ExpandFirst, familiarize yourself with the extinction reading supplement for the background on what ...

Diversity and Extinction during the Paleogene Epoch
ExpandBegin this procedure by reading the extinction reading supplement that has been printed out for ...

Construct explanations to illustrate how varying environmental conditions may result in: changes in the number of individuals of a species, the emergence of new species over time, or the extinction of other species.

LS.Bio.10.1

Synteny and Evolution

John H. Renwick first coined the term &#8220;synteny&#8221; in 1971, which refers to the genes present on the same chromosomes, even if they are not ...

Multi-species Conserved Sequences

Next-generation sequencing technologies have created large genomic databases of a variety of animals and plants. Ever since the human genome project was ...

Taxonomy

Taxonomy is the science of defining and naming groups of biological organisms based on shared characteristics. It uses a hierarchy of increasingly ...

Phylogeny

Phylogeny is concerned with the evolutionary diversification of organisms or groups of organisms. A group of organisms with a name is called a taxon ...

Use models (including dichotomous keys, scientific nomenclature, cladograms, phylogenetic trees) to identify organisms and exemplify relationships.

LS.Bio.10.2

Understand natural selection as a mechanism for biological evolution.

How Genome Size Shapes New Genes

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