Name: atomic orbitals and quantum numbers
Uploaded: 2023-04-30T18:28:31.000Z
Duration: 2 min 28 s
Channel: JoVE

K12 Standards

Louisiana Student Standards for Science

High School

Chemistry

Matter And Its Interactions

HS-PS1-1

Electronic Structure of Atoms

Bir atom, elektronlar, protonlar ve nötronlar olmak üzere üç atom altı parçacıktan oluşur. Pozitif yüklü protonlar ve elektriksel olarak nötr nötronlar, bir atomun tüm pozitif yükünün ve kütlesinin çoğunun bulunduğu atom çekirdeğini oluşturur.
Elektronlar, çekirdeğin etrafındaki boş alanda bulunan negatif yüklü, düşük kütleli bileşenlerdir. Bir atom, proton kadar elektrona sahip olduğunda elektriksel olarak nötrdür.
Elektronlar ikili bir doğa sergiler - parçacık ve dalga. Uzaydaki konumları ve enerjileri birbirini tamamlayan özelliklerdir. Bu nedenle, iyi tanımlanmış bir enerjiye sahip bir elektron için konumu belirsizdir.
Bir atomun kuantum mekaniksel modeli, uzayda üç boyutlu bir bölgede belirli bir enerjinin bir elektronunu bulma olasılığının, elektron olasılık yoğunluğu olarak da adlandırılan elektronun dalga benzeri doğasını ifade eden dalga fonksiyonunun karesinden belirlenebileceğini öngörür.
Bir atomdaki belirli enerjiye sahip bir elektronun olası uzaysal konumunu tanımlayan bir fonksiyona atomik orbital denir.
Her orbital, üç kuantum sayısının benzersiz bir kombinasyonuna karşılık gelir. Temel kuantum sayısı, n, orbitalleri enerji seviyeleri veya kabuklar halinde gruplandırır.
Açısal momentum veya azimut, kuantum sayısı, l, kabuklar içindeki orbitalleri alt kabuklara gruplandırır. Her l değeri, değişen şekle sahip bir s, p, d veya f orbitaline karşılık gelir.
Bazı yörünge şekilleri, her biri manyetik bir kuantum sayısı olan ml ile ilişkili birden fazla olası yönelime sahip olabilir. Belirli bir alt kabuk için yönlendirme sayısı iki-l artı bire eşittir.
Dördüncü kuantum sayısı — spin kuantum sayısı, ms — bir orbitali işgal eden elektronlarla ilişkilidir ve yalnızca iki olası değere sahiptir: 'artı yarım' ve 'eksi yarım'. Bu, bir atomdaki iki elektronun dört kuantum sayısının tümü için aynı değerlere sahip olmamasını sağlar.
Orbitalleri üst üste bindirmek, çekirdeği çevreleyen bir elektron 'bulutu' gibi kabaca küresel bir şekil oluşturur. Bu nedenle atomlar genellikle küreler olarak temsil edilir.

atomların elektronik yapısı

Bir atom, çekirdek adı verilen yoğun, merkezi çekirdeğin içinde yer alan protonlardan ve nötronlardan ve çekirdeğin etrafında bulunan elektronlardan oluşur. Kuantum mekaniği, elektronların dalga-parçacık ikiliğini ve çekirdeğin etrafındaki konum belirsizliğini hesaba katarak atom yapısı için daha doğru bir model sağlar. Atomik yörüngeleri, çekirdeğin etrafındaki, ayrı enerjiye sahip elektronların bulunduğu ve dört kuantum sayısı ile karakterize edilen bölgeler olarak tanımlar: n, l, m_l ve m_s.

Kuantum mekanik modeli

Bir atom, elektronlarla çevrelenmiş küçük, pozitif yüklü bir çekirdekten oluşur. Çekirdekte protonlar ve nötronlar bulunur. Protonların yükü +1 ve kütlesi 1,0073 amu'dur. Nötronların yükü sıfırdır ve kütlesi 1,0087 amu'dur. Elektronların yükü -1 ve kütlesi 0,00055 amu'dur. Çekirdekteki protonların sayısına atom numarası (Z) denir ve bir atomun temel kimliğini tanımlar. Çekirdekteki proton ve nötron sayılarının toplamına kütle numarası denir ve amu cinsinden ifade edilen atomun kütlesine yaklaşık olarak eşittir. Bir atom eşit sayıda elektron ve proton içerdiği zaman nötrdür.

Elektronların çekirdek etrafındaki dağılımını açıklayan atom yapısını tanımlamak için çeşitli modeller önerildi. De Broglie ilişkisi, elektronların hem parçacık hem de dalga özelliklerine sahip olduğunu belirledi. Bu dalga-parçacık ikiliğini daha da ölçerek Heisenberg belirsizlik ilkesini verdi: Elektronun konumu (parçacık doğasıyla ilişkili) ve hızı veya enerjisi (dalga doğası ile ilişkili) aynı anda tam hassasiyetle belirlenemez. Kuantum mekaniksel model atom yapısının daha doğru bir resmini verir. Bir atomda bulunan belirli bir enerjiye sahip bir elektronun üç boyutlu konumunu, dalga fonksiyonunun karesi (ψ^2) cinsinden olasılıksal bir şekilde tanımlar. Atomik dalga fonksiyonları veya atomik yörüngeler, bir atomda elektronların bulunma olasılığının en yüksek olduğu bölgeleri tanımlar.

Bir atomik yörünge üç kuantum sayısıyla karakterize edilir. Temel kuantum sayısı, n, yörüngeleri enerji seviyesinin veya 'kabuğun' konumuna göre gruplandırır. Açısal momentum veya azimut kuantum sayısı, l, yörüngeleri şekillerine göre 'alt kabuklar' halinde gruplandırır. 0'dan n – 1'e kadar tamsayı değerlerine sahiptir ve şu harflerle temsil edilir: s (l = 0), p (l = 1), d (l = 2), f (l = 3), g (l = 4) ve h (l = 5). –l ila +l arasında değişen 2l + 1 değerlerine sahip manyetik kuantum sayısı m_l, yörüngenin uzaydaki yönelimini tanımlar. Ek olarak, her elektronun ±1/2'ye eşit olabilen bir spin kuantum sayısı (m_s) vardır. Aynı atomdaki iki elektron, dört kuantum sayısının tamamı için aynı değerlere sahip olamaz.

Bu metin ’den uyarlanmıştır<a href="https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-2e/pages/6-3-development-of-quantum-theory#0"> Openstax, Chemistry 2e, Section 6</a>.

Atomların Elektronik Yapısı


Bir atom, çekirdek adı verilen yoğun, merkezi çekirdeğin içinde bulunan protonlar ve nötronlardan oluşur ve etrafında elektronlar bulunur.

Education

JoVE Core

Organic Chemistry

Organik Kimya

Unit 1

Ünite 1

Covalent Bonding and Structure

Kovalent Bağlanma ve Yapı

KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS

TEMEL TERİMLER VE KAVRAMLAR

atomic orbitals and quantum numbers

Atomic orbitals and quantum numbers describe how electrons are arranged around the nucleus. An atom has a small, positively charged nucleus with electrons surrounding it. The nucleus contains protons and neutrons, and the quantum mechanical model gives a better picture of this structure than older models.

Protons carry a +1 charge and have a mass of 1.0073 amu. Neutrons have no charge and have a mass of 1.0087 amu. Electrons carry a −1 charge and have a mass of 0.00055 amu. The number of protons is the atomic number, Z, and it defines the element. The total number of protons and neutrons is the mass number, and it is approximately equal to the atom’s mass in amu. An atom is neutral when it has equal numbers of protons and electrons.

The quantum model grew from ideas about electron behavior. The de Broglie relation showed that electrons act like both particles and waves. Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle added that an electron’s position and its velocity or energy cannot both be known with full precision at the same time. Because of this, electron location is described in a probabilistic way using the square of the wavefunction, ψ².

Atomic wavefunctions, or atomic orbitals, show the regions where electrons are most likely to be found. Orbitals are described by four quantum numbers. The principal quantum number, n, gives the energy level or shell. The angular momentum, or azimuthal, quantum number, l, describes orbital shape and forms subshells. Its values run from 0 to n − 1, and the labels are s, p, d, f, g, and h for l = 0 through 5.

The magnetic quantum number, ml, describes how an orbital is oriented in space. It has 2l + 1 possible values, ranging from −l to +l. The spin quantum number, ms, can be +1/2 or −1/2. No two electrons in the same atom can have the same set of values for all four quantum numbers.

Atomic Orbitals and Quantum Numbers

what is organic chemistry?

Carbon Compounds in Everyday Life

Organic chemistry focuses on carbon compounds called organic compounds. These compounds may come from living things or be made by chemists. Carbon is the main element in them, and it bonds with other carbon atoms as well as hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and sulfur. Carbon can form up to four strong bonds. That ability lets carbon atoms build chains and rings of many sizes, shapes, and levels of complexity. Not every carbon-containing substance is classified as organic. Carbonates, cyanides, and...

electronic structure of atoms

Atomic orbitals and quantum numbers describe how electrons are arranged around the nucleus. An atom has a small, positively charged nucleus with electrons surrounding it. The nucleus contains protons and neutrons, and the quantum mechanical model gives a better picture of this structure than older models. Protons carry a +1 charge and have a mass of 1.0073 amu. Neutrons have no charge and have a mass of 1.0087 amu. Electrons carry a −1 charge and have a mass of 0.00055 amu. The number of...

electron configurations

How Electrons Fill Atomic Orbitals

Electron filling in atoms follows a set order based on orbital energy. The Aufbau principle says each new electron enters the lowest-energy subshell available. The Pauli exclusion principle says no two electrons can share the same set of four quantum numbers. Hund’s rule of maximum multiplicity says electrons stay unpaired in equal-energy orbitals when possible. The order of filling follows the relative energies of the subshells. A common sequence is 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, and so on.

chemical bonds

Chemical Bonds: Types and Strength

Chemical bonds help atoms reach a full valence shell like the nearest noble gas. The main bond types are ionic, covalent, and metallic. Bond energy and bond length also help explain how strong a bond is. An ionic bond forms from electrostatic attraction between cations and anions. In many cases, one atom transfers electrons to another atom, and the ions form from that transfer. Ionic bonds have no defined direction because the attraction spreads evenly through three-dimensional space. A...

polar covalent bonds

Electronegativity in Polar Covalent Bonds

Polar covalent bonds form when atoms share electrons unevenly. This happens in covalent bonds between atoms that have similar, but not identical, tendencies to attract electrons. Nonmetal atoms often make these bonds with other nonmetals. Hydrogen gas, H2, is a simple example of a covalent bond between two hydrogen atoms. A covalent bond begins when two atoms move close enough for their valence orbitals to overlap. In hydrogen, the 1s orbitals overlap and the single electrons on each atom...

lewis structures and formal charges

Lewis Structures, Bonds, and Formal Charge

Lewis structures show how atoms share electrons in covalent bonds and in polyatomic ions. Lewis symbols help draw these structures, and the periodic table helps predict how many valence electrons an atom has and how many bonds it can form to reach an octet. Group 18 elements, such as argon and helium, already have filled electron configurations. They rarely take part in chemical bonding. Atoms in group 17, such as bromine and iodine, need one more electron to reach an octet, so they can form...

vsepr theory

Molecular Shapes from Electron Pairs

Molecular shape can be predicted from the way electron pairs arrange around a central atom. Valence shell electron-pair repulsion theory, or VSEPR theory, uses a Lewis structure to count bonding pairs and lone electron pairs. The main idea is simple: electron pairs spread out as far as possible to reduce repulsion. In a molecule, the valence electrons around the central atom can be bonding pairs or lone pairs. Bonding pairs are found mainly between bonded atoms. Lone pairs stay on one atom and...

molecular geometry and dipole moments

Predicting Shape and Molecular Polarity

Molecular shape and molecular polarity can be predicted with VSEPR theory and dipole moments. Start by writing the Lewis structure of the molecule or polyatomic ion. Then count the electron groups around the central atom. Lone pairs and bonds both count as electron groups, and a single, double, or triple bond each counts as one region of electron density. Use that count to identify the electron-pair geometry. Next, use the number of lone pairs to determine the molecular structure. If more than...

resonance and hybrid structures

Resonance in Nitrite and Carbonate Ions

Resonance explains why some Lewis structures do not match the measured properties of a molecule or ion. When two or more Lewis structures have the same atom arrangement, the real electron distribution is an average of the structures shown. The nitrite anion, NO2−, is one example. It can be drawn in two ways, with the N–O and N=O bonds in different places. If nitrite had one single bond and one double bond, the two bond lengths should be different, because a double bond is shorter and stronger...

valence bond theory and hybridized orbitals

valence-bond-theory-and-hybridized-orbitals

Covalent Bond Overlap and Orbital Hybridization

Covalent bonds form when orbitals on two atoms overlap and their single electrons pair up. The bond is stronger when the overlap is greater. Maximum overlap happens when the orbitals meet along a direct line between the two nuclei. A sigma bond, or σ bond, is the kind of covalent bond found in a single bond in a Lewis structure. In a σ bond, electron density is concentrated along the internuclear axis. A pi bond, or π bond, forms when two p orbitals overlap side by side. In a π bond, the...

mo theory and covalent bonding

Bond Order and Molecular Orbitals

Molecular orbital theory explains how electrons are arranged in molecules. It treats electron regions in a molecule much like atomic orbitals in an atom. A molecular orbital is the region of space where a valence electron is most likely to be found. Molecular orbitals form through the linear combination of atomic orbitals, or LCAO. When atomic wave functions combine in phase, they create regions with high electron density. When they combine out of phase, they create nodes, or regions with no...

intermolecular forces and physical properties

intermolecular-forces-and-physical-properties

How Intermolecular Forces Affect Matter

Intermolecular forces are the attractions between molecules, and they help explain how matter behaves. These forces influence melting points, boiling points, and whether substances mix with one another. Water has a much higher boiling point than hexane, which shows that water has stronger intermolecular forces. Three main kinds of intermolecular interactions are covered here. They include ion-dipole forces, dipole-dipole interactions, and van der Waals forces, which include London dispersion...

solubility

Why Some Substances Dissolve in Water

Solution formation depends on how solutes and solvents interact. A solution is a homogeneous mixture made of a solvent, which is the larger part, and a solute, which is the smaller part. The physical state of a solution is usually the same as the solvent. Concentration is often described as dilute for a low amount of solute or concentrated for a high amount of solute. When a solute dissolves, its particles are surrounded by solvent species. This process is called solvation. If water is the...

introduction to functional groups

Functional Groups and Organic Molecules

Functional groups are groups of atoms with specific chemical properties that appear within organic molecules. They are sometimes shown as "R." These groups sit along the carbon backbone of macromolecules, which can form chains or rings of carbon atoms. Functional groups help functionalize a compound. That means they can give the molecule different physical and chemical properties. In organic chemistry, this change in group structure can strongly affect how a compound behaves. Common...

overview of advanced functional groups

Advanced Functional Groups in Organic Chemistry

Advanced functional groups are atom clusters in organic molecules that give those molecules specific chemical properties. They are sometimes shown as "R" in formulas. By changing the atoms attached to a carbon skeleton, a functional group can make a compound behave differently in physical and chemical reactions. This topic covers several major classes of organic compounds with advanced functional groups. Aromatic hydrocarbons include benzene. Phenol is another example and is also called...

key terms and concepts

Learn how atomic orbitals, shells, subshells, and the four quantum numbers describe electron arrangement in atoms through the quantum mechanical model.

Atomic Orbitals and Quantum Numbers | JoVE K12

organic chemistry

JoVE Core Organik Kimya, kısa ve anlaşılması kolay animasyonlu video dersleri kullanarak stereokimya, reaksiyonlar ve mekanizmaların temel kavramlarını açıklar. Buna ek olarak, bilim insanlarının yer aldığı videolar, ilgili kavramların günümüz laboratuvarlarında gerçekleştirilen klasik ve orijinal araştırma deneylerinde nasıl uygulandığını göstermektedir.

HS-PS1-2

HS-PS1-3

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Motion And Stability: Forces And Interactions

HS-PS2-6

Virginia  Standards of Learning

HIgh School

CH.2

CH.2.d

Next Generation Science Standards

Physical Science

Matter and Its Interactions

Florida Department of Education

SC.912.P.8

SC.912.P.8.5

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South Carolina College and Career Ready Science Standards

C-PS1-1

C-PS1-3.

Motion and Stability: Forces and Interactions

C-PS2-6.

Physics

P-PS2-6.

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Periodic Classification of the Elements

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Electron Configuration of Multielectron Atoms

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Coulomb's Law

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Electric Charges

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Sources and Properties of Electric Charge

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Types of Forces

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Electric Fields

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Intermolecular Forces

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Chemical Bonds


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Electron Behavior

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Subatomic Particles

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Ions and Ionic Charges

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Use the periodic table as a model to predict the relative properties of elements based on the patterns of electrons in the outermost energy level and the composition of the nucleus of atoms.  Clarification Statement: Chemistry: Examples of properties that could be predicted from patterns could include reactivity of metals, types of bonds formed, numbers of bonds formed, atomic radius, atomic mass, or reactions with oxygen. Emphasis is on main group elements and qualitative understanding of the relative trends of ionization energy and electronegativity.

Properties of Transition Metals

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The Atomic Theory of Matter

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Chemical Equations

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Temperature Dependence on Reaction Rate

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Stoichiometry, Product Yield, and Limiting Reactants

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Construct and revise an explanation for the outcome of a simple chemical reaction based on the outermost electron states of atoms, trends in the periodic table, and knowledge of the patterns of chemical properties.  Clarification Statement: Chemistry: Examples of chemical reactions could include the reaction of sodium and chlorine, carbon and oxygen, or carbon and hydrogen. Reaction classification aids in the prediction of products (e.g. synthesis, decomposition, single displacement, double displacement, and acid-base).

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Intermolecular Forces and Physical Properties



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electric-field-of-two-equal-and-opposite-charges

Electric Field of Two Equal and Opposite Charges

Atoms generally contain the same number of positively and negatively charged particles, protons, and electrons. Hence, they are electrically neutral. ...

Electric Field

Consider two point charges, each exerting Coulomb force on the other. It is possible to describe the Coulomb interaction via an intermediate step by ...

Ionic Bonding and Electron Transfer

Ions are atoms or molecules bearing an electrical charge. A cation (a positive ion) forms when a neutral atom loses one or more electrons from its valence ...

Electric Dipoles and Dipole Moment

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Plan and conduct an investigation to gather evidence to compare the structure of substances at the macroscale to infer the strength of electrical forces between particles.  Clarification Statement: Emphasis is on understanding the strengths of forces between particles, not on naming specific intermolecular forces (such as dipole-dipole). Examples of particles could include ions, atoms, molecules, and network solids (such as graphite). Examples of macro-properties of substances could include the melting point and boiling point, vapor pressure, and surface tension.

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Bond Dissociation Energy and Activation Energy

Bond energy is the energy required to break a bond homolytically. These values are usually expressed in units of kcal/mol or kJ/mol and are referred to as ...

Bond Energies and Bond Lengths

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Coupled Reactions

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Atomic Orbitals and Quantum Numbers

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