Fertilization

Sperm undergo capacitation, a maturation process where egg-fusing proteins transport to the sperm head and flagellum movements increase. Sperm then locate the egg by sensing chemical signals like progesterone released by cumulus cells. Finally, they undergo the acrosome reaction, expelling digestive enzymes that allow them to burrow through the zona pellucida surrounding the egg.

After the first sperm penetrates the zona pellucida and fuses with the egg, calcium signaling triggers cortical granules beneath the egg's membrane to release enzymes. These enzymes cleave sperm-binding proteins on the zona pellucida's surface, hardening it and blocking additional sperm entry. This polyspermy block ensures only one sperm fertilizes the egg.

Sperm-egg fusion initiates calcium ion waves pulsing through the egg cytoplasm. These Ca2+ oscillations activate kinases in the egg that restart meiosis, which was arrested when the egg was released from the ovary. Calcium signaling essentially awakens the egg, allowing it to resume division and prepare for embryonic development.

After fertilization triggers meiosis resumption, the egg divides into a large mature ovum containing most cytoplasm and a smaller polar body that dissolves. The mature egg's nucleus, called the egg pronucleus, contains one set of unduplicated chromosomes. This haploid nucleus will soon fuse with the sperm pronucleus to form a diploid embryo.

When the sperm nucleus enters the egg, its membrane dissolves and chromosomes unpack. A new nuclear membrane forms around the loosened sperm material, creating the sperm pronucleus. The sperm's centrosome orients between both pronuclei, forming microtubules that draw them together. Their membranes dissolve, chromosomes mingle, and mitosis begins, combining both parents' genetic material.

Sperm are driven into the fallopian tubes partly by uterine contractions. Once there, they sense chemical signals like progesterone released by the cumulus cell complex surrounding the egg. These chemical cues guide sperm toward the egg, enabling them to locate and approach it for fertilization.

Once sperm and egg membranes fuse, the sperm releases its contents—including its nucleus and centrosome—into the egg's cytoplasm. The zona pellucida hardens, blocking other sperm from entering. The diploid structure now contains genetic material from both parents and will undergo embryogenesis cleavage and blastulation to eventually generate a new individual.