Bacterial Phylum Cyanobacteria

Cyanobacteria are classified into five groups: Chroococcales are unicellular and divide by binary fission; Pleurocapsales are unicellular but divide by multiple fission; Oscillatoriales are filamentous and non-heterocystous; Nostocales are filamentous with differentiated heterocysts; and Stigonematales are filamentous with branching capability. This morphological diversity reflects their adaptation to various aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems.

Heterocysts are specialized nitrogen-fixing cells found in filamentous cyanobacteria like Nostocales. They create an anoxic environment necessary for nitrogenase enzyme activity and exchange nutrients with adjacent vegetative cells. This cellular differentiation allows species such as Nodularia to fix atmospheric nitrogen while maintaining photosynthetic function in other cells.

Cyanothece species fix nitrogen exclusively at night, while Trichodesmium species fix nitrogen only during the day. These temporal patterns reflect different metabolic strategies for managing the oxygen produced during photosynthesis, which inhibits nitrogenase. Both strategies allow these species to introduce new nitrogen into oligotrophic tropical and subtropical ocean environments.

Photosynthesis in cyanobacteria occurs in thylakoid membranes, which are internal membrane structures rich in photopigments and photosynthetic proteins. These membranes contain chlorophyll a and phycobilins, pigments responsible for the characteristic blue-green color of cyanobacteria. The thylakoid organization enables efficient light capture and energy conversion.

Cyanobacteria use gas vesicles to regulate buoyancy and maintain optimal positioning for light absorption in aquatic environments. Many species also exhibit gliding motility, often moving toward light sources. These mechanisms allow cyanobacteria like Synechococcus to optimize photosynthetic efficiency and compete effectively in marine and freshwater habitats.

Cyanobacteria are critical for global photosynthesis and nitrogen fixation, particularly in ocean ecosystems. Species like Trichodesmium dominate marine environments and introduce fixed nitrogen into oligotrophic waters, enhancing productivity. Their oxygenic photosynthesis historically transformed Earth's atmosphere from anoxic to oxygen-rich, fundamentally shaping the planet's biosphere.

Cyanobacteria are oxygenic phototrophs that produce oxygen during photosynthesis using FeS-type and Q-type photosystems, whereas anoxygenic phototrophic bacteria do not produce oxygen. Cyanobacteria fix CO2 via the Calvin cycle and contain thylakoid membranes with chlorophyll a and phycobilins. Some cyanobacteria can switch to anoxygenic photosynthesis in sulfide-rich conditions.