Viruses of Archaea

Archaeal viruses play a crucial role in the ecosystems of extremophilic archaea, particularly those belonging to the phyla Euryarchaeota and Crenarchaeota. By shaping host evolution and facilitating gene transfer, these viruses influence microbial communities and contribute to genetic diversity in extreme environments. The archaea they infect thrive in acidic hot springs and hydrothermal vents characterized by high temperatures and low pH. Archaeal viruses exhibit remarkable structural diversity and genetic adaptations that enable their survival and propagation in these extreme settings.

Genetic Composition and Virion Structures

Most archaeal viruses possess double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) genomes, though some have single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) or RNA genomes. A well-studied example is the Sulfolobus spindle-shaped virus (SSV), which carries a circular genome of approximately 15 kilobases. Its spindle-shaped virions cluster into rosette-like formations, which enhance stability in its environment’s harsh thermal and acidic conditions. Another virus, the Sulfolobus filamentous virus, features a rigid, rod-shaped virion structure and a linear DNA genome, further illustrating the diversity in archaeal viral morphologies.

Unique Morphological Adaptations

In addition to spindle and filamentous forms, the Acidianus two-tailed virus (ATV) exhibits a unique morphological transformation. Initially appearing as a lemon-shaped particle, ATV develops long tails after assembly—a process influenced by temperature and pH shifts rather than direct host interactions. This structural modification is hypothesized to facilitate viral transmission and stability within extreme environments.

Another archaeal virus, PAV1, infects Pyrococcus species, a genus of Euryarchaeota adapted to hyperthermophilic environments. PAV1 carries a small circular DNA genome and exits its host via budding, a relatively rare release mechanism among archaeal viruses, which are more commonly released through lysis. Its virions can remain stable at 100°C for extended periods, highlighting their exceptional thermal resistance.

The Emergence of RNA Archaeal Viruses

While most known archaeal viruses are DNA-based, recent research indicates the presence of RNA viruses in acidic hot springs. Although none have been successfully cultured, metagenomic analyses strongly suggest their presence. However, their specific hosts and ecological roles remain largely unknown.

For example, metagenomic studies conducted in geothermal hot springs—such as those in Yellowstone National Park and Kamchatka, Russia—have uncovered RNA viral sequences associated with hyperthermophilic archaea. These RNA viruses exhibit unique genome structures and replication strategies distinct from known viral families, suggesting evolutionary divergence adapted to extreme conditions.

Another study in the hot springs of Iceland identified RNA viruses encoding RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp), a key enzyme for RNA virus replication. These findings suggest a previously unrecognized evolutionary link between RNA viruses in extreme environments and their potential role in horizontal gene transfer among archaea. However, some RNA viruses identified in metagenomic studies may not directly infect archaea but instead associate with archaeal-dominated microbial communities.