Name: Vegetated Treatment Systems for Removing Contaminants Associated with Surface Water Toxicity in Agriculture and Urban Runoff (Video) | JoVE Journal
Uploaded: 2017-05-15T12:30:00.000+00:00
Duration: 8 min 49 s
Description: Learn how vegetated treatment systems remove pesticides from agricultural and urban runoff using integrated chemical analysis and freshwater invertebrate toxicity tests. This method evaluates surface water quality protection.

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5 minutes

Funding for the work described here came from the California Department of Pesticide Regulation and the California Department of Water Resources.

1. Urban Bioswale Efficacy Monitoring
<ol>
	<li>Storm Water Sampling
	<ol>
		<li>Sample 4 L of pre-treatment stormwater leaving the parking lot as it enters the bioswale inlet, and then 4 L of post-treatment stormwater as it leaves the bioswale through the 4&#34; outlet drain.</li>
		<li>Using local weather predictions, collect samples at the beginning, middle, and end of the storm&#39;s hydrograph. Composite the samples to characterize runoff variability during the storm event.</li>
		<li>Collect 1.3 L samples by hand and composite them in a 4 L amber bottle. Collect inlet samples at several curb openings where storm water flows into the bioswale.</li>
		<li>Collect 1.3 L outlet samples from the flow meter attached to the outlet drain (described below) and composite them in a 4 L amber bottle.</li>
		<li>Store the composited samples on ice until the final hydrograph sample is collected. Then transport them to the laboratory and hold in a refrigerator at 4 &#176;C prior to subsampling for chemistry and toxicity testing. Ship samples to the chemistry lab within 48 h of sample collection.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Load Calculation
	<ol>
		<li>Prior to the storm, install a tipping-bucket digital logger rain gauge by attaching it to a light or other pole adjacent to the bioswale site. Use the rain data to indicate instantaneous and total rainfall for the site.</li>
		<li>Install a mechanical geared pulse flow meter on the outlet drains of the bioswale. Record total flow exiting the bioswale. 
		NOTE: Reduction in runoff volume is presumed to reduce overall loading of contaminants in LID designs.</li>
		<li>Model the volume of water falling on the parking lot catchment area during the rain event by extrapolation using the inches of rain recorded by the rain gauge. Use these data to determine the volume entering the treatment system based on parking lot surface area.</li>
		<li>Use the total flow recorded by the outlet flow meter to calculate infiltration percentage. Calculate the difference between inlet and outlet volume to determine stormwater infiltration.</li>
		<li>Calculate contaminant loading and load reduction percentages during the storm using inlet and outlet volume in conjunction with contaminant analytical measurements.</li>
		<li>Measure chemical analytes that are relevant to surface water toxicity (as discussed below). Total chemical groups to simplify load calculations and base on their similar toxic modes of action (e.g., total polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons [PAHs], total pyrethroids, and total fipronil and degradates).</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Chemistry
	<ol>
		<li>Analyze all samples for the following parameters: total suspended solids (TSS), trace metals (USEPA method 200.85; inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry [ICP/MS]), and PAHs (USEPA method 6256).</li>
		<li>Analyze samples for current-use urban pesticides, including 9 pyrethroids (USEPA method SW846 8270 modified7; bifenthrin, cypermethrin, fenvalerate/esfenvalerate, permethrin, tetramethrin, L-cyhalothrin, cyfluthrin, and allethrin), and fipronil and its three primary degradates (fipronil sulfide, fipronil sulfone, fipronil desulfinyl).</li>
		<li>Analyze pyrethroids using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC/MS) using negative chemical ionization or other appropriate method to provide adequate detection limits. Since most current-use pesticides are highly toxic at low concentrations, their analyses require low chemical reporting limits to be relevant for environmental risk assessment. The method reporting limits for pyrethroids are from 0.5 ng/L to 1.0 ng/L for all pyrethroids except permethrin (reporting limit = 10 ng/L).</li>
		<li>Use an analytical procedure for fipronil that provides a method reporting limit of 1.0 ng/L. Organophosphate pesticides do not need to be measured depending on local use patterns for example in urban areas in California8,9.</li>
		<li>Measure neonicotinoid pesticides (e.g., imidacloprid) using ultra performance liquid chromatography coupled to a triple quadrupole mass spectrometer, which has a reporting limit for imidacloprid of 50 ng/L.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Toxicity Testing
	<ol>
		<li>Conduct toxicity tests on the composited inlet and outlet stormwater samples using 3 test species, following modified US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) acute test protocols10. The test with the cladoceran Ceriodaphnia dubia measures survival after 96 h. The test with the amphipod Hyalella azteca measures survival after 10 days. The test with the midge Chironomus dilutus measures survival and growth after 10 days.</li>
		<li>Conduct acute 96 h survival tests with the cladoceran C. dubia following U.S. EPA guidance.
		<ol>
			<li>Expose five C. dubia neonates in each of five replicates of inlet and outlet stormwater samples. Replicates consist of 20-mL scintillation vials containing 15 mL of test solution.</li>
			<li>Feed neonates a mixture of yeast, cerophyll, trout chow (=YCT; following U.S. EPA guidance) and Selenastrum algae 2 h prior to daily 100% renewal of the stormwater test solutions. Record total number of surviving neonates daily.</li>
			<li>Compare final C. dubia survival after 96 h exposure to inlet and outlet stormwater samples to survival in moderately hard control water using a t-test. Follow statistical procedures recommended by U.S. EPA.</li>
		</ol>
		</li>
		<li>Conduct acute 10 d survival tests with the amphipod H. azteca following U.S. EPA guidance.
		<ol>
			<li>Expose 10, 9 days to 15 days old amphipods in each of five replicates. Replicates consist of 300-mL glass beakers containing 200 mL of test solution.</li>
			<li>Conduct amphipod tests for 10 days, count the number of surviving amphipods daily, and renew 50% of the test solution every 48 h. Feed each beaker every 48 h with 1.5 mL of YCT after the renewal.</li>
			<li>Compare final survival of amphipods in stormwater samples to 10 days survival in laboratory well water as described above.</li>
		</ol>
		</li>
		<li>Conduct chronic 10 d survival and growth tests with the midge C. dilutus following U.S. EPA guidance.
		<ol>
			<li>Expose 12, 7-d old animals in each of four replicates. Replicates consist of 300 mL glass beakers containing 200 mL of test solution. Supply each midge test container with 5 mL of sand as substrate for tube building by the larvae.</li>
			<li>Conduct tests for 10 d, and renew 50% of the test solution every 48 h for each beaker daily with an increasing amount of fish food slurry (4 g/L), as follows: days 0 to 3, 0.5 mL/day; days 4 to 6, 1.0 mL/day; days 7 to 10, 1.5 mL/day.</li>
			<li>Compare final survival and growth in stormwater samples to 10-d survival in laboratory well water as described above. Measure growth of surviving animals as ash-free dry weight at 10 d compared to initial weight of the test organisms.</li>
		</ol>
		</li>
		<li>For all toxicity tests, measure dissolved oxygen, pH, and conductivity using appropriate meters and electrodes. Measure un-ionized ammonia using a spectrophotometer.
		<ol>
			<li>Measure water hardness and alkalinity at initiation and termination of tests.10</li>
			<li>Record water temperature with a continuous recording thermometer.</li>
		</ol>
		</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
2. Integrated Vegetated Agricultural Drainage Ditch Efficacy Monitoring
<ol>
	<li>Integrated Ditch Construction 
	NOTE: The agricultural drainage ditch used in the current example is 152 m long and has a semi-V-shaped cross-section width of 5 m at the top and 1 m depth. The ditch vegetation is a combination of native grass species primarily seeded with red fescue (Festuca rubra). In this example, integrated vegetative ditch trials consisted of granulated activated carbon (GAC) and compost filter treatments integrated with the vegetated ditch.
	<ol>
		<li>Construct two compost filters and six carbon filters and install them in three different sections of the vegetated ditch (Figure 2). Use 2 m long 20 cm diameter sleeves filled with either carbon or compost.</li>
		<li>Fill six sleeves with 30 L of granulated activated carbon and place these across the ditch at the 146 m point, near the end of 152 m vegetated ditch. Anchor the GAC-filled sleeves to the ditch bottom with wire stakes on the upstream edge.</li>
		<li>Place a 2.5 m long 6&#34; wide section of pine board on the downstream edge of each of the GAC sleeves. Dig the pine boards into the two sides and bottom of the channel to minimize water bypassing and undercutting the carbon sleeves. The boards will also provide vertical support to maximize water contact time with the carbon.</li>
		<li>Fill the compost sleeves with approximately 15 kg each of partially decomposed yard waste from any clean source, such as a local landfill. Position two 2 m long compost sleeves across the vegetated channel at 64 m and at 123 m along the length of the 152 m vegetated ditch (Figure 2).</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Runoff Simulation and Sampling 
	NOTE: This protocol describes methods for conducting simulated agricultural runoff trials and associated monitoring to evaluate treatment efficacy using the integrated vegetative treatment system. In the current example, the integrated vegetated-compost-carbon system was evaluated at two flow rates that represented rates typical off-field discharge from commercial farms in the Salinas Valley, 3.2 L/s and 6.3 L/s. The organophosphate pesticide chlorpyrifos was used as a model pesticide in these trials because it has a moderate solubility, and therefore represents the mid-range of solubility of representative pesticides commonly used in pest management. Chlorpyrifos is also the subject of on-going regulatory actions in central California because of its impacts on agriculture watersheds. The target chlorpyrifos dose was approximately 2,600 ng/L. Flow rates and target chlorpyrifos concentrations were within the ranges previously measured in local irrigation runoff 3,11. The hydraulic residence time for a pulse of water transiting the vegetated ditch was not monitored in the example given here. The residence time in these systems vary with water inflow rate, the degree of soil saturation due to previous irrigation and rain, the presence of structures to impede flow such as weirs and sedimentation basins, and the amount of surface area covered by vegetation. Previous studies have demonstrated residence times of several hours for small scale ditch systems in the Salinas Valley 3,4. Visual observations indicated the residence time for the GAC filters was one or two minutes.
	<ol>
		<li>Create simulated agricultural runoff using ground water mixed with suspended sediment. For trials with the model pesticide, chlorpyrifos, prepare a fresh stock solution of 10 mg/L for every 3.2 L/s trial by adding certified stock solution to a known volume of distilled water. Prepare a fresh chlorpyrifos stock solution of 20 mg/L for every 6.3 L/s trial.
		<ol>
			<li>Use a metering pump to provide a consistent volume of stock solution to the runoff water before it enters the vegetated treatment ditch inlet. Use the metering pump to deliver stock solution at 50 mL/min to the flow of simulated irrigation water.</li>
		</ol>
		</li>
		<li>Monitor the inlet flow rate with a digital meter and use these data to quantify total volume of runoff water applied to the ditch inlet.</li>
		<li>Construct a weir at the outlet of the ditch and plumb this with an outlet pipe connected to a digital flow meter. Use this meter to record the volume of runoff exiting the ditch.</li>
		<li>Use data loggers connected to the digital meters to record flow at 5 min intervals. Program the data loggers to activate peristaltic pumps located at the inlet and at various stations (e.g., 23 m, 45 m, and 68 m) below the inlet of the ditch to collect composite subsamples of runoff into stainless steel containers at 5 min intervals.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Chemistry
	<ol>
		<li>Transfer composite samples of runoff water from trials into amber glass bottles at the end of each runoff trial and maintain the samples on ice at 4 &#176;C for later toxicity and chemical analyses.</li>
		<li>Analyze the composite samples for total suspended solids (TSS), and chlorpyrifos using GC-MS or enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA).</li>
		<li>Compare &#34;inlet&#34; composite samples (pre-treatment) to &#34;outlet&#34; composite samples (post-treatment) to evaluate efficacy of the integrated ditch system to reduce TSS and pesticide loads.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Toxicity Testing
	<ol>
		<li>Determine water column toxicity was in composite samples from the inlet (pre-treatment) and outlet (post-treatment) of each trial using 96 h Ceriodaphnia dubia toxicity tests10, as described above for the bioswale monitoring. C. dubia is an appropriate monitoring species for agriculture runoff toxicity due to its sensitivity to chlorpyrifos (median lethal concentration (LC50) = 53 ng/L12).</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>

<ol><li>Anderson, B. S., Hunt, J. W., Markewicz, D., Larsen, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.waterboards.ca.gov/water_issues/programs/swamp/docs/txcty_rprt.pdf">Toxicity in California Waters, Surface Water Ambient Monitoring Program</a>. , California Water Resources Control Board. Sacramento, CA. (2011).</li>
<li>Anderson, B. S., Phillips, B. M., Voorhees, J. P., Siegler, K., Tjeerdema, R. S. <a target="_blank" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27145488">Bioswales reduce contaminants associated with toxicity in urban stormwater.</a> Environ Toxicol Chem. 35 (12), 3124-3134 (2016).</li>
<li>Anderson, B. S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Pesticide+and+toxicity+reduction+using+an+integrated+vegetated+treatment+system%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Environ+Toxicol+Chem%22%5BJournal%5D)">Pesticide and toxicity reduction using an integrated vegetated treatment system.</a> Environ Toxicol Chem. (30), 1036-1043 (2011).</li>
<li>Phillips, B. M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.cdpr.ca.gov/docs/emon/surfwtr/contracts/ucdavis_13-C0027_final.pdf">Mitigation Strategies for Reducing Aquatic Toxicity from Chlorpyrifos in Cole Crop Irrigation Runoff</a>. , California Department of Pesticide Regulation. Sacramento, CA. (2014).</li>
<li>U.S. EPA. <a target="_blank" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&safe=off&q=%22Method+1640%3A+Determination+of+Trace+Elements+in+Ambient+Waters+by+On-Line+Chelation+Pre-concentration+and+Inductively+Coupled+Plasma-Mass+Spectrometry%22">Method 1640: Determination of Trace Elements in Ambient Waters by On-Line Chelation Pre-concentration and Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass Spectrometry</a>. , (Office of Water. Washington, DC. EPA 821-R-95-033, 65 (1995).</li>
<li>U.S. EPA. <a target="_blank" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&safe=off&q=%22Methods+for+organic+chemical+analysis+of+municipal+and+industrial+wastetwater%2C++Method+625-+Base%2Fneutrals+and+acids%22">Methods for organic chemical analysis of municipal and industrial wastetwater, Method 625- Base/neutrals and acids</a>. , Washington Office of Water. DC, 20460. U.S. EPA Appendix A to Part 136, 42 (1984).</li>
<li>U.S. EPA. <a target="_blank" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&safe=off&q=%22Method+1656%3A++Determination+of+Non-conventional+Pesticides+in+Municipal+and+Industrial+Wastewater%2C+Volume+I.+Revision+1%0A%22">Method 1656: Determination of Non-conventional Pesticides in Municipal and Industrial Wastewater, Volume I. Revision 1
</a>. , Office Water. Washington, DC. EPA 821/R-93-010-A, 59 (1993).</li>
<li>Johnson, H. M., Domagalski, J. L., Saleh, D. K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Trends+in+Pesticide+Concentrations+in+Streams+of+the+Western+United+States%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22J+Am+Water+Resour+Assoc%22%5BJournal%5D)">Trends in Pesticide Concentrations in Streams of the Western United States.</a> J Am Water Resour Assoc. 47 (2), 265-286 (1993).</li>
<li>Siegler, K., Phillips, B. M., Anderson, B. S., Voorhees, J. P., Tjeerdema, R. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Temporal+and+spatial+trends+in+sediment+contaminants+associated+with+toxicity+in+California+watersheds%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Environ+Poll%22%5BJournal%5D)">Temporal and spatial trends in sediment contaminants associated with toxicity in California watersheds.</a> Environ Poll. , 1-6 (2015).</li>
<li>U.S. EPA. <a target="_blank" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&safe=off&q=%22Methods+for+measuring+acute+toxicity+of+effluents+and+receiving+water+to+freshwater+and+marine+organisms%22">Methods for measuring acute toxicity of effluents and receiving water to freshwater and marine organisms</a>. , Office of Research and Development. Washington, DC. EPA-821-R-02-012, 275 (2002).</li>
<li>Phillips, B. M., Anderson, B. S., Siegler, K., Voorhees, J. P., Tjeerdema, R. S. Optimization of an Integrated Vegetated Treatment System Incorporating Landguard A900 Enzyme: Reduction of Water Toxicity Caused by Organophosphate and Pyrethroid Pesticides. Final Report. Resource Conservation District of Monterey County and the United States Department of Agriculture Natural Resources Conservation Service and The California Department of Pesticide Regulation. , Available from: 
 <a target="_blank" href="http://www.cdpr.ca.gov/docs/emon/surfwtr/contracts/ucdavis_09-C0079_final.pdf">http://www.cdpr.ca.gov/docs/emon/surfwtr/contracts/ucdavis_09-C0079_final.pdf</a> (2012).</li>
<li>Bailey, H. C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/etc.5620161115/abstract">Joint acute toxicity of diazinon and chlorpyrifos to Ceriodaphnia dubia.</a> Environ Toxicol Chem. 16, 2304-2308 (1997).</li>
<li>Supowit, S., Sadaria, A. M., Reyes, E. J., Halden, R. U. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Mass+balance+of+fipronil+and+total+toxicity+of+fipronil-related+compounds+in+process+streams+during+conventional+wastewater+and+wetland+treatment%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Environ+Sci+Technol%22%5BJournal%5D)">Mass balance of fipronil and total toxicity of fipronil-related compounds in process streams during conventional wastewater and wetland treatment.</a> Environ Sci Technol. 50 (3), 1519-1526 (2016).</li>
<li>Stang, C., Bakanov, N., Schulz, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Experiments+in+water-macrophyte+systems+to+uncover+the+dynamics+of+pesticide+mitigation+processes+in+vegetated+surface+waters%2Fstreams%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Environ+Sci+Pollut+Res%22%5BJournal%5D)">Experiments in water-macrophyte systems to uncover the dynamics of pesticide mitigation processes in vegetated surface waters/streams.</a> Environ Sci Pollut Res. , (2015).</li>
<li>Schulz, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Field+studies+on+exposure%2C+effects%2C+and+risk+mitigation+of+aquatic+nonpoint-source+insecticide+pollution%3A+A+review%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22J+Environ+Qual%22%5BJournal%5D)">Field studies on exposure, effects, and risk mitigation of aquatic nonpoint-source insecticide pollution: A review.</a> J Environ Qual. 33 (2), 419-448 (2004).</li>
<li>Moore, M. T., et al. <a target="_blank" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/237611100_Transport_and_Fate_of_Atrazine_and_Lambda-Cyhalothrin_in_an_Agricultural_Drainage_Ditch_in_the_Mississippi_Delta_USA">Transport and fate of atrazine and lambda-cyhalothrin in a vegetated drainage ditch in the Mississippi Delta.</a> Agric Ecosyst Environ. 87, 309-314 (2001).</li>
<li>Phillips, B. M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((The+Effects+of+the+Landguard+A900+Enzyme+on+the+Macroinvertebrate+Community+in+the+Salinas+River%2C+California%2C+United+States+of+America%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Arch+Environ+Contam+Toxicol%22%5BJournal%5D)">The Effects of the Landguard A900 Enzyme on the Macroinvertebrate Community in the Salinas River, California, United States of America.</a> Arch Environ Contam Toxicol. 70 (2), Salinas River, California. 231-240 (2016).</li>
<li>Han, W., Fang, J., Liu, X., Tang, J. <a target="_blank" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/285904540_Techno-economic_evaluation_of_a_combined_bioprocess_for_fermentative_hydrogen_production_from_food_waste">Techno-economic feasibility evaluation of a combined bioprocess for fermentative hydrogen production from food waste.</a> Bioresource Technology. , 107-112 (2016).</li>
<li>Solomon, K. R., Giddings, J. M., Maund, S. J. <a target="_blank" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11349868">Probabilistic risk assessment of cotton pyrethroids: I. Distributional analysis of laboratory aquatic toxicity data.</a> Environ Toxicol Chem. 20, 652-659 (2001).</li>
<li>Weston, D. P., Lydy, M. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Toxicity+of+the+Insecticide+Fipronil+and+Its+Degradates+to+Benthic+Macroinvertebrates+of+Urban+Streams%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Environ+Sci+Tech%22%5BJournal%5D)">Toxicity of the Insecticide Fipronil and Its Degradates to Benthic Macroinvertebrates of Urban Streams.</a> Environ Sci Tech. , (2014).</li>
<li>Voorhees, J. P., Anderson, B. S., Phillips, B. M., Tjeerdema, R. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Carbon+treatment+as+a+method+to+remove+imidacloprid+from+agriculture+runoff%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Bull+Environ+Contam+Toxicol%22%5BJournal%5D)">Carbon treatment as a method to remove imidacloprid from agriculture runoff.</a> Bull Environ Contam Toxicol. , (2017).</li>
</ol>

The authors declare that they have no competing financial interests.

The practices described in this protocol are intended as final steps in an overall strategy to remove pollutants in agriculture irrigation and stormwater runoff. Use of bioswales and other urban green-infrastructure LID practices are intended as a final piece of the puzzle to remove contaminants in runoff before they reach adjacent receiving waters. This protocol emphasizes methods to monitor urban bioswales to determine treatment efficacy for removing toxicity associated with urban contaminants, with emphasis on current...

Surface water toxicity is prevalent in California watersheds and decades of monitoring have shown that toxicity is often due to pesticides and other contaminants1. The primary sources of surface water contamination are stormwater and irrigation runoff from urban and agriculture sources. As waterbodies are listed as degraded due to contaminants and the toxicity is identified from urban and agricultural sources, water quality regulators partner with state and federal funding sources to implement practices to reduce contaminant loading. Green infrastructure is being promoted in California urban watersheds to reduce flooding and increase the recovery of stormwater through infiltration and storage. While Low Impact Development (LID) designs are being mandated for new construction in many regions, few studies have monitored the efficacy of these systems beyond measurements of conventional contaminants like dissolved solids, metals, and hydrocarbons. More intensive monitoring has recently evaluated reductions in chemical concentrations and chemical loading responsible for surface water toxicity, and to directly determine whether bioswales reduce toxicity of runoff. This has shown that bioswales are effective at removing toxicity associated with some contaminant classes2, but additional research is required for emerging chemicals of concern.
Vegetated treatment systems are also being implemented in agriculture watersheds in California, and these have been shown to be effective at reducing pesticides and other contaminants in agriculture irrigation runoff3,4. These systems represent components of a suite of approaches to reduce contaminant loading to surface waters. Because they are intended to mitigate contaminants responsible for surface water toxicity, a key component of the implementation process is monitoring to ensure their long-term effectiveness. Monitoring includes both chemical analyses of chemicals of concern, as well as toxicity testing with sensitive indicator species. This article describes protocols and monitoring results for an urban parking lot bioswale and an agricultural vegetated drainage ditch system.
The design attributes of a typical parking lot bioswale, such as may be used to treat storm runoff in a typical mixed-use urban shopping parking area depend on the area being treated. In the example described here, 53,286 square feet of asphalt create an impervious surface area that drains to a swale, which consists of 4,683 square feet of landscaping. To accommodate runoff from this surface area, a 215 feet long flat-bottom, semi-V shape channel comprises the swale with a side slope less than 50% and a longitudinal slope of 1% (Figure 1). This swale comprises three layers including native bunch grass planted in 6 inches of topsoil, layered over 2.5 feet of compacted subgrade. Stormwater flows from parking areas to multiple entry points along the swale. The water infiltrates the vegetated area, then permeates the subgrade and drains into a 4-inch perforated drain. This system drains water through a system plumbed to an adjacent wetland that eventually drains into a local creek.

<table><tbody><tr><td>HOBO tipping-bucket digital logger rain gauge&amp;nbsp;</td><td>Onset Computer Co., Bourne MA, USA)</td><td>Onset RG3</td><td>Rain gauge</td></tr><tr><td>Mechanical geared pulse flow meter&amp;nbsp;</td><td>Seametrics Inc., Kent WA</td><td>Seametrics MJ-R</td><td>Flow meter for measuring bioswale outlet flow</td></tr><tr><td>Filtrexx SafteySoxx</td><td>Filtrexx Co. - info@filtrexx.com</td><td>SafetySoxx</td><td>perforated synthetic cloth for granulated activated carbon and compost</td></tr><tr><td>Granulated activated carbon&amp;nbsp;</td><td>Evoqua - Siemens Corp., Oakland CA</td><td>AC380</td><td>GAC for agriculture irrigation water treatment</td></tr><tr><td>Digital flow meters&amp;nbsp;</td><td>Seametrics Inc. Kent WA</td><td>Ag2000; WMP101</td><td>Flow meters for agriculture irrigation treatment system monitoring</td></tr><tr><td>Data Loggers</td><td>Campbell Scientific Inc., Logan, UT</td><td>CR1000</td><td>Data loggers for recording flow data</td></tr><tr><td>Peristaltic pumps for composite sampling</td><td>Omega Engineering Inc. Stamford CT</td><td>Omegaflex FPU-122-12VDC&amp;nbsp;</td><td>Pumps for composite sampling</td></tr></tbody></table>

vegetated treatment systems for removing contaminants associated with surface water toxicity in agriculture and urban runoff

Vegetated Treatment Systems for Removing Contaminants Associated with Surface Water Toxicity in Agriculture and Urban Runoff

Urban stormwater and agriculture irrigation runoff contain a complex mixture of contaminants that are often toxic to adjacent receiving waters. Runoff may be treated with simple systems designed to promote sorption of contaminants to vegetation and soils and promote infiltration. Two example systems are described: a bioswale treatment system for urban stormwater treatment, and a vegetated drainage ditch for treating agriculture irrigation runoff. Both have similar attributes that reduce contaminant loading in runoff: vegetation that results in sorption of the contaminants to the soil and plant surfaces, and water infiltration. These systems may also include the integration of granulated activated carbon as a polishing step to remove residual contaminants. Implementation of these systems in agriculture and urban watersheds requires system monitoring to verify treatment efficacy. This includes chemical monitoring for specific contaminants responsible for toxicity. The current paper emphasizes monitoring of current use pesticides since these are responsible for surface water toxicity to aquatic invertebrates.

Urban Bioswale Efficacy
During the 18.5 h of the storm, 1.52" of rain was recorded by the rain gauge, and this resulted in 50,490 gallons of water flowing from the parking lots into the bioswale. Of this total volume, 5,248 gallons were recorded by the outlet flow meter, resulting in a total infiltration of 90% of the stormwater that flowed into the bioswale. The bioswale reduced all of the chemicals monitored. Total suspended soli...

This article summarizes the design attributes and the effectiveness of treatment systems that treat urban stormwater and agriculture irrigation runoff to remove pesticides and other contaminants associated with aquatic toxicity.

Urban stormwater and agriculture irrigation runoff contain a complex mixture of contaminants that are often toxic to adjacent receiving waters. Runoff may ...

The overall goal of these procedures is to combine chemical analysis with freshwater invertebrate toxicity tests to evaluate how well vegetated treatment systems remove current-use pesticides from urban storm water, and agriculture irrigation runoff. This approach is intended to answer whether standard remediation practices are effective at protecting surface water quality from contaminants. And to determine the appropriate monitoring components for evaluating effectiveness of management practices.The main advantage of these procedures is that they couple toxicity test protocols with chemical monitoring of in-field remediation techniques, designed to reduce loading of pesticides in surface waters. Bryn Phillips and Michael Cahn will demonstrate components of an integrated vegetated treatment system, designed to remove pesticides and other contaminants from agricultural runoff. Jennifer Voorhees will demonstrate three toxicity test protocols, used to monitor the treatment system.The vegetated drainage ditch, used in the current example, is 152 meters long, and has a semi V-shaped cross-section width of five meters at the top, and one meter depth. The ditch vegetation is a combination of native grass species, primarily seeded with red fescue. The vegetated ditch is augmented with compost filters and carbon filters.Filters are constructed from tubular mesh sleeves that are two meters long and twenty centimeters in diameter. Fill each carbon sleeve with 30 liters of granulated, activated carbon. And fill each compost sleeve with 15 kilograms each of partially decomposed yard waste from any clean source, such as a local landfill.Install the filters in different sections of the vegetated ditch, as displayed in the text protocol. Anchor the sleeves to the ditch bottom with wire stakes on the upstream edge. Then, place a 2.5 meter long, six inch wide, section of pine board on the downstream edge of each of the sleeves.Dig the pine boards into the two sides, and bottom of the channel, to minimize water bypassing and undercutting the carbon sleeves. The boards will also provide vertical support to maximize the water contact time with the carbon. The efficacy of the integrated ditch system can be tested by creating simulated agricultural runoff, using groundwater mixed with suspended sediment and spiked with a model pesticide.Since neurotoxic pesticides, such as organophosphates, pyrethroids, and neonicotinoids, have recently been linked to surface water toxicity, treatment systems and monitoring programs should emphasize these pesticide classes. Monitor the inlet flow rate with a digital meter, and data logger. Use the data to quantify total volume of the runoff water applied to the ditch inlet.Construct a weir at the outlet of the ditch, and plumb it with an outlet pipe connected to a digital flow meter and data logger. Program the data loggers to activate peristaltic pumps located at the inlet, and at various stations below the inlet of the ditch, to collect composite subsamples of runoff into stainless steel containers at five minute intervals. Transfer composite samples of runoff water from trials into amber glass bottles at the end of each runoff trial.Maintain the samples on ice at four degrees Celsius for later toxicity and chemical analysis, as described in the text protocol. Due to time constraints, we have emphasized an integrated vegetated ditch for treating pesticides and agricultural runoff. The design and monitoring principles applied to this system also apply to urban storm water treatment using bioswales, as discussed in the manuscript.Prepare composited inlet and outlet vegetated ditch water samples for conducting toxicity tests using three test species, following modified US Environmental Protection Agency acute and chronic test protocols. Prior to setting up exposures, measure the dissolved oxygen, PH, and conductivity of a subsample of each sample, using appropriate meters and electrodes. Also, measure unionized ammonia using a spectrophotometer.Next, conduct acute 96 hour survival tests, with the cladoceran Ce.dubia. Expose five Ce.dubia neonates in each of five replicates of inlet and outlet stormwater samples. Replicates consist of 20 milliliter scintillation vials containing 15 milliliters of test solution.Renew the Ce.dubia test daily by feeding neonates a mixture of yeast, Cerophyll, trout chow, and Selenastrum algae two hours prior to renewal. Then, transfer the organisms to a fresh sample. Record the total number of surviving neonates daily.Also, conduct acute 10 day survival tests with the amphipod H.azteca. Expose 10 seven day-to 14 day-old amphipods to each of five replicates. Replicates consist of 300 milliliter glass beakers, containing 100 milliliters of test solution.Count the number of surviving amphipods daily, and renew 50%of the test solution every 48 hours. Feed each beaker every 48 hours with 1.5 milliliters of YCT after the renewal. To conduct chronic 10 day survival and growth tests with the midge C.dilutus, expose 12 seven day-old animals in each of four replicates.Replicates consist of 300 milliliter glass beakers, containing 200 milliliters of test solution, and five milliliters of sand, as the substrate for tube-building by the larvae. Renew 50%of the test solution every 48 hours. Feed each beaker daily with an increasing amount of fish food slurry, from four grams per liter of fish food slurry.After counting the final survival of C.dilutus, measure the growth of the surviving organisms as ash-free dry weight. Compare final Ce.dubia survival after 96 hours of exposure to inlet and outlet vegetated ditch samples to their survival in moderately-hard control water, using a t-test. Use the same procedures to compare final survival of H.azteca, and the final survival and growth of C.Dilutus.Representative results of the vegetated treatment of agriculture irrigation runoff, showed that this system is effective at reducing pesticide and toxicity. The average chlorpyrifos loading was reduced by 98%at a flow rate of 3.2, and by 94%at a flow rate of 6.3 liters per second. Toxicity was eliminated in two of the three trials at the lower flow rate, and one of the three trials at the higher flow rate.Reductions of toxicity and pesticides and other contaminants were also observed in bioswale treatment of storm water. Pyrethroid pesticides were greatly reduced in storm water, and associated toxicity to the amphipod, H.azteca, was also reduced. Conversely, the concentration of fipronil sulfone was not reduced by bioswale treatment, and neither was toxicity to the midge, C.Dilutus.Water quality regulators and researchers use aquatic toxicity testing to evaluate the capacity of surface waters to support aquatic life. Data generated through decades of monitoring in California has shown that most toxicity to invertebrates is caused by pesticides. Environmental regulators in California are implementing policies to reduce loading of pesticides from storm water, and agriculture runoff.These include the promotion of treatment systems, designed to reduce loading of current-use pesticides from these sources. Visual demonstration of the toxicity test protocols should reinforce the concept that monitoring the efficacy of these treatment systems needs to use test species and protocols that are sensitive to current-use pesticides. We have shown that vegetated systems are a cost-effective solution for treating pesticides in agricultural runoff.Addition of granulated, activated carbon to these systems has been shown to remove residual pesticides not removed by vegetation. Monitoring the effectiveness of these systems using targeted chemical analysis, and appropriate toxicity test protocols, will ensure that these practices are protecting aquatic ecosystems.

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Research

JoVE Journal

Environment

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Learn how vegetated treatment systems remove pesticides from agricultural and urban runoff using integrated chemical analysis and freshwater invertebrate toxicity tests. This method evaluates surface water quality protection.

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