Name: Live-cell Imaging of Fungal Cells to Investigate Modes of Entry and Subcellular Localization of Antifungal Plant Defensins (Video) | JoVE Journal
Uploaded: 2017-12-24T12:30:00.000+00:00
Duration: 8 min 39 s
Description: Learn live-cell imaging to study antifungal plant defensin internalization and subcellular localization in Fusarium graminearum. This method reveals how these peptides enter fungal cells and distribute within organelles.

ai_agent_IP

ai_agent

maintenance

instantTrialDurationMinutes

isBiopharma

enableNewMyJoveSectionDesign

educationFeatures

seoMetaApi

ai_copilot_institution_blacklist

ai_chat_institution_blacklist

freeAccessWindow

ssoRoleCapture

scheduledMaintenanceBanner

joveLabsFeatures

disable_autoplay_for_bots

extended_trial_duration

5 minutes

playerTrialDesktop

We thank Dr. R. Howard Berg, Director of the Integrated Microscopy Facility at the Donald Danforth Plant Science Center, for his guidance and help with confocal microscopy. The authors have no conflict of interest to declare.

1. Labeling of Defensins with Fluorophores
<ol>
	<li>Select a fluorophore that has minimum effect on the antimicrobial properties as well as the uptake and localization of defensin inside the living cell. 
	NOTE: Selecting optimal fluorophore depends on specific experimental objectives. The spectral and chemical properties, photostability, size and charge of the fluorophore should also be considered.</li>
	<li>Label defensin with the selected fluorophore using an appropriate peptide labeling kit available from commercial vendors. Alternatively, chemically synthesize fluorophore-labeled defensins. In this study, label MtDef5 defensin with DyLight550 using a commercial labeling kit according to manufacturer&#39;s protocol and tetramethyl rhodamine (TAMRA)-labeled MtDef4 defensin was chemically synthesized commercially. 
	NOTE: It is recommended that chemically synthesized fluorophore tagged peptides (especially for short peptides of 50 amino acids or less) be used since the fluorophore can be attached to the N- or C-terminal residue of the peptide to ensure minimum effect on its antimicrobial activity. Synthesis of long peptides with more than three disulfide bonds is challenging. In this case, it is recommended that peptide be labeled with an optimal fluorophore using a suitable commercially available peptide labeling kit.</li>
	<li>Test in vitro antimicrobial activity of the labeled defensin and determine the minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) against the fungi to be investigated. 
	NOTE: In this study, the MIC of DyLight550-MtDef5 and TMR-MtDef4 was determined against Neurospora crassa and Fusarium graminearum.</li>
</ol>
2. Fungal Cultures and Growth Medium
<ol>
	<li>Transfer conidia from a N. crassa stock culture to slant tube containing Vogel&#39;s agar medium21 and incubate at room temperature under light for 5 days.</li>
	<li>Culture F. graminearum PH-1 strain on plates containing complete medium (CM)22 at 28 &#186;C for 5 days. For production of conidia, inoculate 4 (10 mm diameter) plugs of 5 day old culture of F. graminearum PH-1 into 50 mL of carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) medium (15 g carboxymethyl cellulose, 1 g Yeast extract, 0.5 g MgSO4.7 H2O, 1 g NH4NO3, and 1 g KH2PO4) and culture for 4-7 days at 28 &#186;C in a rotary shaker at 180 rpm.</li>
</ol>
3. Preparation of Conidial Suspension
<ol>
	<li>F. graminearum conidial suspension
	<ol>
		<li>Vortex the F. graminearum liquid culture and collect conidia by filtering 1.5 mL fungal culture through two layers of filtration material (such as Miracloth)&#160;into a 2 mL microcentrifuge tube. Centrifuge the conidial suspension at 13,226 x g speed in a microcentrifuge for 2 min.</li>
		<li>Discard the supernatant, and add 1 mL of sterile water to wash the pellet.</li>
		<li>Centrifuge the conidial suspension at 13,226 x g speed in a microcentrifuge for 2 min. Discard the supernatant and resuspend the pellet in 1 mL of 2X SFM (Synthetic Fungal Media)23.</li>
		<li>Count the conidia using a hemocytometer under a light microscope.</li>
		<li>Adjust the conidial suspension to 105 conidia/mL with 2X SFM.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>N. crassa conidial suspension
	<ol>
		<li>Transfer a small amount of growing culture (5 day old) of N. crassa using an inoculation loop to a microcentrifuge tube containing 2 mL of Vogel&#39;s liquid medium.</li>
		<li>Vortex the conidial suspension and filter through filtration material into a new microcentrifuge tube.</li>
		<li>Centrifuge the conidial suspension at maximum speed in a microcentrifuge for 2 min. Discard the supernatant and resuspend the conidial pellet in 1 mL of Vogel&#39;s liquid medium.</li>
		<li>Count the conidia using a hemocytometer under a light microscope.</li>
		<li>Adjust the conidial suspension to 105 conidia/mL with Vogel&#39;s liquid medium.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
4. Sample Preparation and Confocal Microscopy
<ol>
	<li>Subcellular localization of MtDef4 defensin into fungal cells
	<ol>
		<li>Pipette 50 &#181;L of each conidial suspension (105 conidia/mL) into the 10 mm microwell of 35 mm glass bottom microwell dishes. For the observation of conidia, directly proceed to the next step, or for germlings preparation, pipette 50 &#181;L of N. crassa and F. graminearum conidia into the 35 mm culture dishes and let germinate for 3-6 h at room temperature.</li>
		<li>Add 50 &#181;L of fluorescently labeled defensin at the MIC to each microwell dish and incubate for 2.5 h. The MIC of the fluorophore-labeled defensins used here (step 1.3) is 3 &#181;M for both N. crassa and F. graminearum and the MIC of TMR-MtDef4 for N. crassa and F. graminearum was 1 &#181;M and 12 &#181;M, respectively.</li>
		<li>Add 2 &#181;L of membrane-selective dye FM4-64 (final concentration: 5 &#181;M) in culture dish and incubate for 30 min and mount immediately on the confocal microscope for imaging.</li>
		<li>Select the White Light laser (WLL). Use the two laser sources 488 nm and 550 nm to excite TMR-MtDef4 and FM4-64 dye, respectively. Detect fluorescence of TMR-MtDef4 at 580-700 nm and detect FM4-64 dye at 690-800 nm. 
		NOTE: Perform confocal microscopy in the dark room.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Time lapse imaging of internalization of MtDef5 defensin
	<ol>
		<li>Pipette 50 &#181;L of N. crassa and F. graminearum conidial suspension (105 conidia/mL) into 10 mm microwell of 35 mm glass bottom microwell dishes. The 10 mm microwell is uncoated and has a No. 1.5 cover glass at the bottom. For the observation of conidia, directly proceed to the next step. For observation of germlings, incubate conidia for 3-6 h at room temperature before proceeding with the microscopy.</li>
		<li>Turn on WLL. Select the laser line at 550 nm to excite the fluorophore-labeled defensins used here (step 1.3) and FM4-64 with 1.00% intensity and activate the corresponding detectors. The fluorophore-labeled defensins used here (step 1.3) was detected at 560 - 600 nm and the FM4-64dye was detected at 690 - 800 nm. 
		NOTE: Use low laser intensity for live cell imaging as high laser intensity can cause damage to the live fungal cells.</li>
		<li>Mount the microwell dish on the microscope. Find the cells using 10 x objectives initially, then switch to 100x/1.44 OIL objective for higher magnification. 
		NOTE: Set the scan mode to xyzt (combination of Z-stack and time-lapse modes), Z position, Zoom, frequency of image capture, etc. before proceeding to the next step.</li>
		<li>Add 50 &#181;L of the fluorophore-labeled defensins used here (step 1.3) of at the MIC of 3 &#181;M and 2 &#181;L of membrane-selective dye FM4-64 (final concentration 5 &#181;M) to each microwell dish, and start time-lapse imaging. Place small pieces of wet filter papers in the microwell dishes to prevent evaporation. The frequency of image capture was 3 min 30 s and the total period was 2 h 30 min. 
		NOTE: Adding defensin and fluorophore after mounting microwell dish in the microscope can defocus the region of interest. Therefore, after adding defensin and fluorophore to the microwell, region of interest needs to be refocused which can cause delay in image acquisition.</li>
		<li>Use a confocal microscope for all confocal imaging and carry out the microscopy at room temperature in a dark room.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>

<ol><li>Jones, J. D. G., Dangl, J. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v444/n7117/full/nature05286.html">The plant immune system.</a> Nature. 444 (7117), 323-329 (2006).</li>
<li>Tavormina, P., De Coninck, B., Nikonorova, N., De Smet, I., Cammue, B. P. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((The+Plant+Peptidome%3A+An+expanding+repertoire+of+structural+features+and+biological+functions%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Plant+cell%22%5BJournal%5D)">The Plant Peptidome: An expanding repertoire of structural features and biological functions.</a> Plant cell. 27 (8), 2095-2118 (2015).</li>
<li>Van Der Weerden, N. L., Bleackley, M. R., Anderson, M. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Properties+and+mechanisms+of+action+of+naturally+occurring+antifungal+peptides%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Cell.+and+Mol.+Life+Sci%22%5BJournal%5D)">Properties and mechanisms of action of naturally occurring antifungal peptides.</a> Cell. and Mol. Life Sci. 70 (19), 3545-3570 (2013).</li>
<li>Van der Weerden, N. L., Anderson, M. A. <a target="_blank" href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Marilyn_Anderson/publication/257691605_Plant_defensins_Common_fold_multiple_functions/links/02e7e5269aee227c27000000.pdf">Plant defensins: Common fold, multiple functions.</a> Fungal Biol Rev. 26 (4), 121-131 (2013).</li>
<li>De Coninck, B., Cammue, B. P. A., Thevissen, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1749461312000346">Modes of antifungal action and in planta functions of plant defensins and defensin-like peptides.</a> Fungal Biol Rev. 26 (4), 109-120 (2013).</li>
<li>Kaur, J., Sagaram, U. S., Shah, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S174946131100042X">Can plant defensins be used to engineer durable commercially useful fungal resistance in crop plants?</a> Fungal Biol. Rev. 25 (3), 128-135 (2011).</li>
<li>Vriens, K., Cammue, B. P. A., Thevissen, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Antifungal+plant+defensins%3A+Mechanisms+of+action+and+production%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Molecules%22%5BJournal%5D)">Antifungal plant defensins: Mechanisms of action and production.</a> Molecules. 19 (8), 12280-12303 (2014).</li>
<li>Sagaram, U. S., Kaur, J., Shah, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/bk-2012-1095.ch015">Antifungal plant defensins: Structure-activity relationships, modes of action, and biotech applications.</a> ACS Symp. Ser. 1095, 317-336 (2012).</li>
<li>Thevissen, K., Francois, I. E. J. A., Aerts, A. M., Cammue, B. P. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Fungal+sphingolipids+as+targets+for+the+development+of+selective+antifungal+therapeutics%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Curr.+Drug+Targets%22%5BJournal%5D)">Fungal sphingolipids as targets for the development of selective antifungal therapeutics.</a> Curr. Drug Targets. 6 (8), 923-928 (2005).</li>
<li>Thevissen, K., Kristensen, H. H., Thomma, B. P. H. J., Cammue, B. P. A., Francois, I. E. J. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Therapeutic+potential+of+antifungal+plant+and+insect+defensins%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Drug+Discov.+Today%22%5BJournal%5D)">Therapeutic potential of antifungal plant and insect defensins.</a> Drug Discov. Today. 12 (21-22), 966-971 (2007).</li>
<li>Aerts, A. M., François, I. E. J. A., Cammue, B. P. A., Thevissen, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((The+mode+of+antifungal+action+of+plant%2C+insect+and+human+defensins%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Cell.+Mol.+Life+Sci%22%5BJournal%5D)">The mode of antifungal action of plant, insect and human defensins.</a> Cell. Mol. Life Sci. 65 (13), 2069-2079 (2008).</li>
<li>Van Der Weerden, N. L., Lay, F. T., Anderson, M. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((The+plant+defensin%2C+NaD1%2C+enters+the+cytoplasm+of+Fusarium+oxysporum+hyphae%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22J.+Biol.+Chem%22%5BJournal%5D)">The plant defensin, NaD1, enters the cytoplasm of Fusarium oxysporum hyphae.</a> J. Biol. Chem. 283 (21), 14445-14452 (2008).</li>
<li>Lobo, D. S., Pereira, I. B., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Antifungal+Pisum+sativum+Defensin+1+Interacts+with+Neurospora+crassa+Cyclin+F+Related+to+the+Cell+Cycle%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Biochemistry%22%5BJournal%5D)">Antifungal Pisum sativum Defensin 1 Interacts with Neurospora crassa Cyclin F Related to the Cell Cycle.</a> Biochemistry. 46 (4), 987-996 (2007).</li>
<li>El-Mounadi, K., Islam, K. T., Hernandez-Ortiz, P., Read, N. D., Shah, D. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Antifungal+mechanisms+of+a+plant+defensin+MtDef4+are+not+conserved+between+the+ascomycete+fungi+Neurospora+crassa+and+Fusarium+graminearum%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Mol.+Microbiol%22%5BJournal%5D)">Antifungal mechanisms of a plant defensin MtDef4 are not conserved between the ascomycete fungi Neurospora crassa and Fusarium graminearum.</a> Mol. Microbiol. 100 (3), 542-559 (2016).</li>
<li>Baxter, A. A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((The+Tomato+Defensin+TPP3+Binds+Phosphatidylinositol+%284%2C5%29-Bisphosphate+via+a+Conserved+Dimeric+Cationic+Grip+Conformation+To+Mediate+Cell+Lysis%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Mol.+and+Cell.+Biol%22%5BJournal%5D)">The Tomato Defensin TPP3 Binds Phosphatidylinositol (4,5)-Bisphosphate via a Conserved Dimeric Cationic Grip Conformation To Mediate Cell Lysis.</a> Mol. and Cell. Biol. 35 (11), 1964-1978 (2015).</li>
<li>Kvansakul, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Binding+of+phosphatidic+acid+by+NsD7+mediates+the+formation+of+helical+defensin-lipid+oligomeric+assemblies+and+membrane+permeabilization%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Proc.+Natl.+Acad.+Sci%22%5BJournal%5D)">Binding of phosphatidic acid by NsD7 mediates the formation of helical defensin-lipid oligomeric assemblies and membrane permeabilization.</a> Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 113, 11202-11207 (2016).</li>
<li>Poon, I. K. H., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Phosphoinositide-mediated+oligomerization+of+a+defensin+induces+cell+lysis%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22eLife%22%5BJournal%5D)">Phosphoinositide-mediated oligomerization of a defensin induces cell lysis.</a> eLife. 3, e01808(2014).</li>
<li>Muñoz, A., Read, N. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Live-cell+imaging+and+analysis+shed+light+on+the+complexity+and+dynamics+of+antimicrobial+Peptide+action%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Front.+Immunol%22%5BJournal%5D)">Live-cell imaging and analysis shed light on the complexity and dynamics of antimicrobial Peptide action.</a> Front. Immunol. 3, 248(2012).</li>
<li>Hayes, B. M. E., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Identification+and+mechanism+of+action+of+the+plant+defensin+NaD1+as+a+new+member+of+the+antifungal+drug+arsenal+against+candida+albicans%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Antimicrob.+Agents+Chemother%22%5BJournal%5D)">Identification and mechanism of action of the plant defensin NaD1 as a new member of the antifungal drug arsenal against candida albicans.</a> Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 57 (8), 3667-3675 (2013).</li>
<li>Muñoz, A., Marcos, J. F., Read, N. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Concentration-dependent+mechanisms+of+cell+penetration+and+killing+by+the+de+novo+designed+antifungal+hexapeptide+PAF26%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Mol.+Microbiol%22%5BJournal%5D)">Concentration-dependent mechanisms of cell penetration and killing by the de novo designed antifungal hexapeptide PAF26.</a> Mol. Microbiol. 85 (1), 89-106 (2012).</li>
<li>Eaton, C. J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((The+guanine+nucleotide+exchange+factor+RIC8+regulates+conidial+germination+through+G%CE%B1+proteins+in+Neurospora+crassa%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22PLoS+One%22%5BJournal%5D)">The guanine nucleotide exchange factor RIC8 regulates conidial germination through Gα proteins in Neurospora crassa.</a> PLoS One. 7 (10), e48026(2012).</li>
<li>Leslie, J. F., Summerell, B. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&safe=off&q=author%3aLeslie%2C+JF+%22The+Fusarium.+laboratory+manual%22">The Fusarium. laboratory manual</a>. , Blackwell Professional. Ames, IA, USA. (2006).</li>
<li>Broekaert, W. F., Terras, F. R. G., Cammue, B. P. A., Vanderleyden, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1574-6968.1990.tb04174.x/abstract">An automated quantitative assay for fungal growth inhibition.</a> FEMS Microbiol.Lett. 69 (1-2), 55-59 (1990).</li>
<li>Sagaram, U. S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Structural+and+functional+studies+of+a+phosphatidic+acid-binding+antifungal+plant+defensin+MtDef4%3A+Identification+of+an+RGFRRR+motif+governing+fungal+cell+entry%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22PLoS+One%22%5BJournal%5D)">Structural and functional studies of a phosphatidic acid-binding antifungal plant defensin MtDef4: Identification of an RGFRRR motif governing fungal cell entry.</a> PLoS One. 8 (12), 1-22 (2013).</li>
<li>Uchida, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Soft+X-ray+tomography+of+phenotypic+switching+and+the+cellular+response+to+antifungal+peptoids+in+Candida+albicans%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Proc.+Natl.+Acad.+Sci%22%5BJournal%5D)">Soft X-ray tomography of phenotypic switching and the cellular response to antifungal peptoids in Candida albicans.</a> Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 106 (46), 19375-19380 (2009).</li>
<li>Nair, R., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Better+prediction+of+sub-cellular+localization+by+combining+evolutionary+and+structural+information%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Proteins+Struct.+Funct.+Bioinform%22%5BJournal%5D)">Better prediction of sub-cellular localization by combining evolutionary and structural information.</a> Proteins Struct. Funct. Bioinform. 53 (4), 917-930 (2003).</li>
<li>Scott, M. S., Calafell, S. J., Thomas, D. Y., Hallett, M. T. <a target="_blank" href="http://journals.plos.org/ploscompbiol/article?id=10.1371/journal.pcbi.0010066">Refining protein subcellular localization.</a> PLoS Comput. Biol. 1 (6), e66(2005).</li>
<li>Shagaghi, N., Bhave, M., Palombo, E., Clayton, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Revealing+the+sequence+of+interactions+of+PuroA+peptide+with+Candida+albicans+cells+by+live-cell+imaging%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Sci.+Rep%22%5BJournal%5D)">Revealing the sequence of interactions of PuroA peptide with Candida albicans cells by live-cell imaging.</a> Sci. Rep. 7, 43542(2017).</li>
</ol>

The authors have nothing to disclose.

In this study, a reliable live-cell imaging methodology with the use of fluorescently labeled antifungal defensins was described to study the kinetics of the internalization of these peptides into fungal cells and to determine their subcellular targets. This method is a powerful tool to visualize the dynamics of the interaction between defensins and fungal cells temporally and spatially.
Various methods have been used to study the internalization and intracellular localization of plant defensi...

Plants have evolved a sophisticated innate immune system for defense against the microbial plant pathogens1. They express numerous gene-encoded host defense peptides with putative antimicrobial activity2. Indeed, many of these peptides display antimicrobial activity in vitro3. Defensins comprise one of the largest groups of host defense peptides in the plant kingdom4. These cysteine-rich, cationic peptides exhibit potent growth inhibitory activity against fungal and oomycete pathogens at micromolar concentrations and represent one of the first lines of defense against these pathogens5,6. Because of their potent antifungal activity, defensins can be exploited in agribiotechnological applications to generate disease resistant crops. Constitutive overexpression of several plant defensins has been shown to enhance disease resistance in the greenhouse and field tests of transgenic crops6. It is important to unravel the mechanisms of action (MOA) of these antifungal peptides in order to fully harness their potential as effective tools for crop protection. However, the MOA of these plant defensins are poorly understood. Current evidence suggests that they exhibit different MOA5,6,7,8. Some defensins act extracellularly on fungi and target specific cell wall/plasma membrane resident sphingolipids, disrupt membrane integrity and activate cellular toxicity pathways9,10,11. Recently, however, antifungal defensins that translocate into fungal cells have been discovered12,13,14. Some of these defensins bind to membrane-resident bioactive phospholipids, form oligomeric complexes and permeabilize plasma membranes15,16,17. Thus, some aspects of the MOA of plant defensins have been elucidated. However, the MOA of plant defensins likely involve a complex set of events which have not yet been identified and integrated into a comprehensive model. In particular, there remains a major gap in our understanding of the cellular targets of these peptides.
With recent advances in microscopy technologies and the development of new fluorescent probes, live-cell imaging techniques are now frequently used to study the MOA of antimicrobial peptides (AMPs). These techniques complement widely used methods such as immunolocalization, electron microscopy, atomic force microscopy or X-ray tomography18, which have been employed mostly to analyze the effects of antifungal peptides on the morphology and growth of fungal cells including the study of cell wall integrity, alterations in cell growth/branching patterns, as well as plasma membrane permeabilization and killing. Nevertheless, these studies have been limited to imaging cells at a certain time point after treatment with the peptides instead of performing time-lapse imaging on the same cells to monitor their dynamic changes in response to defensin challenge. In recent years, use of fluorescently labeled peptides in conjunction with live cell imaging using confocal microscopy has enabled real-time visualization of the dynamics of AMP&#8211;microbe interactions. Both naturally purified and chemically synthesized antifungal peptides can be tagged with fluorescent labels (e.g., DyLight, rhodamine, BODIPY, or Alexa Fluor based dyes) and directly observed during their interaction with cells by time-lapse live-cell imaging. The use of these labeled peptides has significantly increased our understanding of the different aspects of their MOA including mode of entry, subcellular localization, intracellular trafficking, and sites of antifungal action within living fungal cells18.
Recently, several studies have shown that various antifungal peptides including plant defensins are internalized by living fungal cells12,14,19,20. The MOA of these defensins likely involve interaction with intracellular targets. We have recently reported the antifungal action of a plant defensin MtDef4 in two ascomycete fungi, Neurospora crassa and Fusarium graminearum. MtDef4 was shown to use different pathways for fungal cell entry and subcellular localization in these fungi14. This study used chemically synthesized tetramethyl rhodamine (TAMRA)-labeled MtDef4 in combination with vital fluorescent dyes (the membrane selective dye, FM4-64; membrane-permeant dye, SYTOX Green; the cell death reporter dye, propidium iodide) and metabolic inhibitors. These analyses demonstrated the kinetics of the internalization of MtDef4, its mechanisms of intracellular transportation and its subcellular targets14.
Here, a protocol for live-cell imaging using confocal microscopy is presented. The protocol utilizes fluorescently labeled peptides in combination with vital fluorescent dyes to study plant defensin-fungal interactions, in particular, the pathways of translocation and the intracellular targets of defensins in fungal cells.

<table><tbody><tr><td>FM4-64 Dye</td><td>Life Technologies</td><td>T13320</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>DyLight 550 Antibody Labeling Kit</td><td>Thermo Scientific</td><td>84530</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Glass Bottom Microwell Dishes</td><td>Mat TeK</td><td>P35G-1.5-10-C</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Mira cloth</td><td>EMD Millipore Corp</td><td>475855-1R</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>SP8-X confocal microscope</td><td>Leica</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>ImageJ software</td><td>FiJi</td><td></td><td>For Image analysis</td></tr><tr><td>Imaris software</td><td>Bitplane</td><td></td><td>For Image analysis</td></tr></tbody></table>

live-cell imaging of fungal cells to investigate modes of entry and subcellular localization of antifungal plant defensins

Live-cell Imaging of Fungal Cells to Investigate Modes of Entry and Subcellular Localization of Antifungal Plant Defensins

Small cysteine-rich defensins are one of the largest groups of host defense peptides present in all plants. Many plant defensins exhibit potent in vitro antifungal activity against a broad-spectrum of fungal pathogens and therefore have the potential to be used as antifungal agents in transgenic crops. In order to harness the full potential of plant defensins for diseases control, it is crucial to elucidate their mechanisms of action (MOA). With the advent of advanced microscopy techniques, live-cell imaging has become a powerful tool for understanding the dynamics of the antifungal MOA of plant defensins. Here, a confocal microscopy based live-cell imaging method is described using two fluorescently labeled plant defensins (MtDef4 and MtDef5) in combination with vital fluorescent dyes. This technique enables real-time visualization and analysis of the dynamic events of MtDef4 and MtDef5 internalization into fungal cells. Importantly, this assay generates a wealth of information including internalization kinetics, mode of entry and subcellular localization of these peptides. Along with other cell biological tools, these methods have provided critical insights into the dynamics and complexity of the MOA of these peptides. These tools can also be used to compare the MOA of these peptides against different fungi.

Live cell imaging was carried out to track and compare the internalization and subcellular localization of two defensins, MtDef4 and MtDef5, from Medicago truncatula; in fungal cells. TMR-MtDef4 was chemically synthesized while MtDef5 was labeled with Dylight550 (Dylight550-MtDef5). Conidia were incubated with either defensin in combination with the membrane selective dye FM4-64. Figure 1 shows that TMR-MtDef4 has different trafficking pathways in <e...

Plant defensins play an important role in plant defense against pathogens. For effective use of these antifungal peptides as antifungal agents, understanding their modes of action (MOA) is critical. Here, a live-cell imaging method is described to study critical aspects of the MOA of these peptides.

Small cysteine-rich defensins are one of the largest groups of host defense peptides present in all plants. Many plant defensins exhibit potent in vitro ...

The overall goal of this live-cell imaging method is to study critical aspects of the mechanisms of action of antifungal plant defensins in fungal cells. With the advent of advanced confocal microscopy techniques, live-cell imaging has become a powerful tool to study the modes of action of antifungal plant defensins. Making use of this technology, here we present a method to help answer key question in understanding the modes of action of antifungal plant defensins.Our focuses are how these peptides are internalized into the fungal cells and how these peptides are localized into the cell organelles or diffused in the cytoplasm. To make a conidial suspension of PH-1 strain of Fusarium graminearum, first set up cultures of the strain on plates containing complete medium. Culture them at 28 degrees Celsius over five days.To produce conidia, inoculate four 10-millimeter diameter plugs of the five-day-old culture into 50 milliliters of carboxymethyl cellulose medium. Culture these plugs for four to seven days at 28 degrees Celsius on a rotary shaker set to 180 rpm. When the cultures have a red color, the conidia have formed.To collect the conidia in a suspension, vortex the liquid cultu

live-cell-imaging-fungal-cells-to-investigate-modes-entry-subcellular

Research

JoVE Journal

Biology

This video demonstrates live cell imaging for the analysis of antifungal activity in human neutrophils using fluorescent Aspergillus reporter conidia. Initially, both red and magenta fluorescence are detected within neutrophils, while red fluorescence decreases over time, indicating the degradation of conidia and confirming the antifungal activity of neutrophils.

Real-Time Assessment of the Antifungal Activity of Primary Human Immune Cells

We describe methods for live-cell video microscopy of Candida albicans phagocytosis by macrophages.  These methods enable stage-specific analysis of macrophage migration, recognition, engulfment and phagosome maturation and reveal novel aspects of phagocytosis.

Live-cell Video Microscopy of Fungal Pathogen Phagocytosis

Here, we describe a protocol to assess antifungal activity of primary human immune cells in real-time using fluorescent Aspergillus reporter conidia in conjunction with live-cell video microscopy and flow cytometry. Generated data provide insight into host cell-Aspergillus interactions such as fungicidal activity, phagocytosis, cell migration and inhibition of fungal growth.

Live Imaging of Antifungal Activity by Human Primary Neutrophils and Monocytes in Response to A. fumigatus

Fluorescent protein-based approaches to monitor effectors secreted by bacteria into host cells are challenging. This is due to the incompatibility between fluorescent proteins and the type-III secretion system. Here, an optimized split superfolder GFP system is used for visualization of effectors secreted by bacteria into the host plant cell.

Split Green Fluorescent Protein System to Visualize Effectors Delivered from Bacteria During Infection

Vital fluorescent dyes are essential tools for live-cell imaging analyses in modern fungal cell biology. This paper details the application of established and lesser-known fluorescent dyes for tracking plasma membrane dynamics, endo-/exocytosis and cell wall morphogenesis in filamentous fungi.

Application of Membrane and Cell Wall Selective Fluorescent Dyes for Live-Cell Imaging of Filamentous Fungi

Owing to the opacity of soil, interactions between its constituent microbes cannot easily be visualised with cellular resolution. Here, two microfluidic tools are presented, which offer new opportunities for investigating fungal-microbial interactions. The devices are versatile and simple to use, enabling high spatiotemporal control and high-resolution imaging at the cellular level.

Microfluidic Tools for Probing Fungal-Microbial Interactions at the Cellular Level

This manuscript details an optimized inoculation protocol that uses detached maize leaf sheaths for reproducible cytological, physiological, and molecular studies of maize interactions with fungal plant pathogens. The leaf sheaths facilitate real-time observation of cellular interactions between the living plant and fungus in unfixed tissues.

Detached Maize Sheaths for Live-Cell Imaging of Infection by Fungal Foliar Maize Pathogens

Xenopus embryonic epithelia are an ideal model system to study cell behaviors such as polarity development and shape change during epithelial morphogenesis. Traditional histology of fixed samples is increasingly being complemented by live-cell confocal imaging. Here we demonstrate methods to isolate frog tissues and visualize live epithelial cells and their cytoskeleton using live-cell confocal microscopy.

Live-cell Imaging and Quantitative Analysis of Embryonic Epithelial Cells in Xenopus laevis

The extent of store-operated Ca2+ entry (SOCE) can be monitored using fluorescent Ca2+ indicators. Mn2+ quenching of such indicators assays SOCE in cultured cells and skeletal muscle fibers. A technique allowing spatial and temporal resolution of SOCE by confocal imaging of mechanically skinned muscle fibers is also described.

Fluorescence-based Measurement of Store-operated Calcium Entry in Live Cells: from Cultured Cancer Cell to Skeletal Muscle Fiber

This protocol describes a method for visualizing a DNA double-strand break signaling protein activated in response to DNA damage as well as its localization during mitosis.

Two- and Three-Dimensional Live Cell Imaging of DNA Damage Response Proteins

Learn live-cell imaging to study antifungal plant defensin internalization and subcellular localization in Fusarium graminearum. This method reveals how these peptides enter fungal cells and distribute within organelles.

Live-cell Imaging of Fungal Cells to Investigate Modes of Entry and Subcellular Localization of Antifungal Plant Defensins

Explore More Videos