Name: Porcine As a Training Module for Head and Neck Microvascular Reconstruction (Video) | JoVE Journal
Uploaded: 2018-09-29T13:00:00.000+00:00
Duration: 7 min 43 s
Description: Learn microvascular head and neck reconstruction using a porcine superior epigastric artery perforator flap model. This training protocol helps beginner surgeons develop essential skills in a realistic surgical environment.

ai_agent_IP

ai_agent

maintenance

instantTrialDurationMinutes

isBiopharma

enableNewMyJoveSectionDesign

educationFeatures

seoMetaApi

ai_copilot_institution_blacklist

ai_chat_institution_blacklist

freeAccessWindow

ssoRoleCapture

scheduledMaintenanceBanner

joveLabsFeatures

disable_autoplay_for_bots

extended_trial_duration

5 minutes

This work was funded and supported by the Basic Science Research Program through the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) funded by the Ministry of Science, ICT and Future Planning (2015R1C1A1A01051907). This work was also supported by the Basic Science Research Program through the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) funded by the Ministry of Science, ICT &#38; Future Planning (NRF-2016M3A9E9941746).

This study was guided and approved by the Department of Laboratory Animal Resources, Yonsei Biomedical Research Institute, Yonsei University College of Medicine, accredited by the Association for Assessment and Accreditation of Laboratory Animal Care International. This study followed the guidelines for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals of the Institute of Laboratory Animal Resources Commission on Life Sciences National Research Council. All Pigs were acclimated for One week before the operation.
1. Preparation
<ol>
	<li>Keep the pigs without food for over 12 h before general anesthesia with free access to water. 
	Note: Six female Yorkshire pigs were used weighing 25&#8211;30 kg each.</li>
	<li>Use a 16 Gauge Needle of 1 cm length to intramuscularly inject alfaxan (1 mg/kg), xylazine (2 mg/kg), and azaperone (2 mg/kg) behind and below the ear to initiate anesthesia.</li>
	<li>Shave the anterior midline of the neck and the abdominal wall of the pig using a surgical hair removal shaver.</li>
	<li>Secure an intravenous (IV) route through central or marginal ear vein on the posterior side of the auricle with a 22-G needle. Inject Ketorolac (1 mg/kg) via an IV line.</li>
	<li>Then inject atropine (0.04 mg/kg) intramuscularly as described in 1.2. Inject cefazolin (30 mg/kg) intramuscularly as described in 1.2.</li>
	<li>Put the pig lying down in a supine position over the Operating room table.</li>
	<li>Allow the pig to breath 2 L of oxygen with 5% of isoflurane through Swine anesthesia mask spontaneously.</li>
	<li>Expose the vocal cords through the mouth by using a laryngoscope and spray them with two puffs of 2% Lidocaine topical solution to prevent intubation-induced laryngospasm.</li>
	<li>Intubate with a 6.5 mm tube, inflate the tube cuff with 3-5 mL of air using a syringe without a needle attached to it. 
	Note: Perform capnometry to ensure that the tracheal tube, which is a part of the anesthesia machine, is in proper position and there is CO2 back to the machine as an indication of proper oxygenation.</li>
	<li>Maintain the anesthesia after the intubation with 2% isoflurane.</li>
	<li>Use the vet ointment on pig&#8217;s eyes and close it with an eye cover patch.</li>
</ol>
2. Procedure: Reception Site
<ol>
	<li>Disinfect the neck and the abdominal wall with the iodine-based scrub solution 1%.</li>
	<li>Start a vertical midline incision in the anterior neck using blade No. 23 up to the sternum.</li>
	<li>Dissect the strap muscles and retract it laterally using Kelly tissue scissor and Lahey retractor.</li>
	<li>Expose the trachea from the first ring to the thoracic inlet.</li>
	<li>Then, expose the common carotid artery and the internal jugular vein for the anastomosis.</li>
	<li>Create a window in the second or third tracheal cartilage, ~1 cm in width using blade no. 11.</li>
	<li>Look for the endotracheal tube through the tracheal defect created, and make sure the aeration through the tube is continued using the ventilator without a leak.</li>
</ol>
3. Procedure: Flap Site
Note: The superior epigastric artery perforator (SEAP) flap harvest can be performed, according to the method described by Frederic Bodin7.
<ol>
	<li>Design a flap on the upper abdomen by a surgical marker pen (Figure 1A).</li>
	<li>Create an elliptical Skin incision 4 x 3 cm using a No. 23 scalpel to the anterior sheath of the abdominal wall on the medial side of the drawn flap (Figure 1B).</li>
	<li>Elevate (peel) the Flap from the rectus abdominis muscle sheath looking for the perforators going to the skin flap while holding the fascia by the allis.</li>
	<li>Perform the intramuscular dissection and follow the perforators to the superior epigastric vessels (Figure 1B)</li>
	<li>Now perform the lateral skin incision on the designed flap (Figure 1A) using a No. 23 scalpel (Figure 1C)</li>
	<li>Clamp the superior epigastric vessels and venae comitantes with the hemostat superiorly and use Kelly tissue scissors to cut below the hemostat and ligate the vessel above the hemostat by 3-0 suture. Then take off the hemostat.</li>
</ol>
4. Anastomosis and Closure
<ol>
	<li>Put on a surgical loupe.</li>
	<li>Clamp the Carotid artery using two hemostats with 1-2 cm distance between them.</li>
	<li>Use micro-scissors to cut between the carotid artery and tie the superior part by double suture insure no oozing.</li>
	<li>Use the double clamp without the frame between the carotid artery and flap artery.</li>
	<li>Start anastomosis by using 10-0 suture simple full thickness interpreted.</li>
	<li>Place the first two stay sutures approximately 120 degrees apart on the vessel&#8217;s circumference then in between place 2-3 stitches.</li>
	<li>Release the clamp. If there is blood oozing do the similar suture at the oozing site.</li>
	<li>Look for the venous back flow from venae comitantes.</li>
	<li>Perform anastomosis as described in step 4.1 to 4.7 for the internal jugular vein and venae comitantes (Figure 1D).</li>
	<li>Use a syringe needle size 18 to prick the skin to ensure flap viability by seeing a blood drop.</li>
	<li>Close the tracheal window and suture it with the muscle fascia of the SEAP flap using 3-0 suture.</li>
	<li>Exteriorize and suture a skin paddle of the SEAP flap to the cervical midline skin incision (Figure 2A).</li>
	<li>Close the abdominal skin incision (Figure 2B).</li>
</ol>
5. Post-operative Care
<ol>
	<li>Get the pig back into the prone position.</li>
	<li>Stop the isoflurane and wean the pig from the ventilator.</li>
	<li>Allow the pig to recover in the animal cage and monitor it closely to ensure its smooth recovery from the procedure.</li>
	<li>Look for the flap at reconstruction site after healing (Figure 2C).</li>
	<li>Look at the donor site in the animal after healing (Figure 2D).</li>
	<li>Start Ringer&#39;s lactate at the rate of 150 mL/h until full recovery and administer 0.3 mg buprenorphine for analgesia.</li>
	<li>Following extubation, monitor the pig closely until it has regained sufficient consciousness to maintain position and breathing and is able to drink spontaneously.</li>
	<li>Keep the post-surgery pigs in separated place from no operated animals.</li>
	<li>Start intramuscular amoxicillin&#8211;clavulanate (14 mg/kg) for 1 week.</li>
	<li>Start intramuscular Meloxicam (0.2 mg/kg) for 1 week.</li>
</ol>
6. Euthanasia
<ol>
	<li>Start anesthesia for the pig by injecting propofol through i.v. (5-10 mL) and maintain it with isoflurane 5%.</li>
	<li>Intubate the pig as described on step (1.1, 1.2, 1.6-1.10).</li>
	<li>Induce the cardiac arrest by intravenous injection of 40 mmol KCl.</li>
</ol>

<ol><li>Chen, C. L., Zenga, J., Roland, L. T., Pipkorn, P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Complications+of+double+free+flap+and+free+flap+combined+with+locoregional+flap+in+head+and+neck+reconstruction%3A+A+systematic+review%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Head+%26+Neck+journal+of+the+Science+and+Specialties+of+the+Head+and+Neck%22%5BJournal%5D)">Complications of double free flap and free flap combined with locoregional flap in head and neck reconstruction: A systematic review.</a> Head & Neck journal of the Science and Specialties of the Head and Neck. 40 (3), 632-646 (2018).</li>
<li>Smith, R. K., Wykes, J., Martin, D. T., Niles, N. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Perforator+variability+in+the+anterolateral+thigh+free+flap%3A+a+systematic+review%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Surgical+and+Radiologic+Anatomy%22%5BJournal%5D)">Perforator variability in the anterolateral thigh free flap: a systematic review.</a> Surgical and Radiologic Anatomy. 39 (7), 779-789 (2017).</li>
<li>Bauer, F., Koerdt, S., Hölzle, F., Mitchell, D. A., Wolff, K. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Eight+free+flaps+in+24+hours%3A+a+training+concept+for+postgraduate+teaching+of+how+to+raise+microvascular+free+flaps%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22British+Journal+of+Oral+and+Maxillofacial%22%5BJournal%5D)">Eight free flaps in 24 hours: a training concept for postgraduate teaching of how to raise microvascular free flaps.</a> British Journal of Oral and Maxillofacial. 54 (1), 35-39 (2016).</li>
<li>Schoeff, S., Hernandez, B., Robinson, D. J., Jameson, M. J., Shonka, D. C. Jr <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Microvascular+Anastomosis+Simulation+Using+a+Chicken+Thigh+Model%3A+Interval+Versus+Massed+Training%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22The+Laryngoscope%22%5BJournal%5D)">Microvascular Anastomosis Simulation Using a Chicken Thigh Model: Interval Versus Massed Training.</a> The Laryngoscope. 127 (11), 2490-2494 (2017).</li>
<li>Bodin, F., Diana, M., Koutsomanis, A., Robert, E., Marescaux, J., Bruant-Rodier, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Porcine+model+for+free-flap+breast+reconstruction+training%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Plastic+and+Reconstructive+Surgery+Journal%22%5BJournal%5D)">Porcine model for free-flap breast reconstruction training.</a> Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery Journal. 68 (10), 1402-1409 (2015).</li>
<li>Rodriguez, J. R., Yañez, R., Cifuentes, I., Varas, J., Dagnino, B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Microsurgery+Workout%3A+A+Novel+Simulation+Training+Curriculum+Based+on+Nonliving+Models%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Plastic+and+Reconstructive+Surgery+Journal%22%5BJournal%5D)">Microsurgery Workout: A Novel Simulation Training Curriculum Based on Nonliving Models.</a> Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery Journal. 138 (4), 739e-747e (2016).</li>
<li>Carey, J. N., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Simulation+of+plastic+surgery+and+microvascular+procedures+using+perfused+fresh+human+cadavers%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Plastic+and+Reconstructive+Surgery+journal%22%5BJournal%5D)">Simulation of plastic surgery and microvascular procedures using perfused fresh human cadavers.</a> Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery journal. 67 (2), e42-e48 (2014).</li>
<li>Chan, W., Niranjan, N., Ramakrishnan, V. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Structured+assessment+of+microsurgery+skills+in+the+clinical+setting%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Plastic+and+Reconstructive+Surgery+Journal%22%5BJournal%5D)">Structured assessment of microsurgery skills in the clinical setting.</a> Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery Journal. 63 (8), 1329-1334 (2010).</li>
<li>Matsumura, N. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((A+newly+designed+training+tool+for+microvascular+anastomosis+techniques%3A+Microvascular+Practice+Card%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Surgical+Neurology+Journal%22%5BJournal%5D)">A newly designed training tool for microvascular anastomosis techniques: Microvascular Practice Card.</a> Surgical Neurology Journal. 71 (5), 616-620 (2010).</li>
<li>Kim, W. S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Tracheal+reconstruction+with+a+free+vascularized+myofascial+flap%3A+preclinical+investigation+in+a+porcine+model+to+human+clinical+application%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Scientific+Reports%22%5BJournal%5D)">Tracheal reconstruction with a free vascularized myofascial flap: preclinical investigation in a porcine model to human clinical application.</a> Scientific Reports. 7 (1), 10022(2017).</li>
</ol>

The authors have nothing to disclose.

Significant morbidity and defects can occur in head and neck malignancy patients during surgical management. Microvascular free tissue transfer has become essential for reconstruction in most cases. The viability of the flap is a critical issue, requiring steadiness, precise handling of the pedicle, tactile sensation, visuospatial ability, and excellent operative flow from the surgeon8. To develop these skills, one needs extensive practice with a training model3,...

Reconstruction following surgery for the head and neck malignant diseases is a difficult procedure associated with significant morbidity. Microvascular free-flap reconstruction has been well established as the standard approach to reconstruction for over 20 years1,2,3. Free-flap transfer plays a significant role in improving the head and neck management in cancer patients and in post-traumatic injuries thereby pushing the boundaries of surgical excision of disease beyond previous techniques, resulting in greater patient quality of life and longer survival rates1,2,3. The various flaps for reconstruction include rotational, graft, and free flaps.
The role of free flaps in the head and neck reconstruction has expanded. It is the most difficult flap to work with, requiring skilled and delicate handling. Flap failure is a catastrophic event, with significant morbidity4,5. Thus, considerable training time is required to develop the precision necessary for the successful surgical outcomes3,4,5,6,7,8,9. The steep learning curve associated with such a surgery can influence the outcome for patients and affect treatment management3,4,5,6,7,8,9. To reduce the training time and learning curve for new surgeons, a training model is needed that mimics human biology and provides similar surgical field conditions8.
The goal of this study is to show the visibility of Porcine as a good training module for the head and neck microvascular reconstruction resembling the human case with improved skills in the active fashion.
This study investigated the use of a porcine model for training new colleagues in the head and neck microvascular reconstruction for free-flap transfer to provide a cost-effective and less stressful supplement to the clinical field training with reliably similar features for free-flap procedures. Pigs have been used for many studies and as teaching models for various surgical reconstructions, e.g., breast reconstruction;5 however, pigs have never been used for head and neck reconstruction except in our study for tracheal reconstruction due to tracheal stenosis10.
The idea was started after Frederic Bodin7, who describe the similar flap for breast reconstruction. The main advantage for the study over the other module of microvascular training is the active livening module with a real immediate result of the procedure.

<table><tbody><tr><td>Pigs XP Bio, Seoul, South Korea</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Surgical Hair Removal shaver</td><td>3M</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>22 gage catheter</td><td>B.BRAUN</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>syring with needle size 18</td><td>Jung Rim Medical</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Intramuscular alfaxan</td><td>Careside</td><td></td><td>10ml/VAL</td></tr><tr><td>Intramuscularxylazine</td><td>Bayer</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Intramuscular azaperone</td><td>Sigma-aldrich</td><td></td><td>34223</td></tr><tr><td>Intramuscular atropine</td><td>Daewon</td><td></td><td>0.5mg/A</td></tr><tr><td>Intramuscular cefazolin</td><td>Yuhan</td><td></td><td>1g</td></tr><tr><td>intravenous Ketorolac</td><td>Hana Pharm</td><td></td><td>30mg</td></tr><tr><td>Swine ansthesia mask</td><td>DRE</td><td></td><td>1392</td></tr><tr><td>endotracheal cuff tube 6.5 mm</td><td>SMITH medical</td><td></td><td>100/150/065</td></tr><tr><td>ansthesia Machine</td><td>Dr&amp;auml;ger</td><td></td><td>PRIMUS IE</td></tr><tr><td>2% lidocaine topical solution</td><td>Taejoon</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>vet ointment</td><td>Pfizer</td><td></td><td>terramycin &lt;img alt=&quot;Misc&quot; src=&quot;/files/ftp_upload/58104/58104misc1.jpg&quot;/&gt;</td></tr><tr><td>eye cover patch</td><td>Innomed</td><td></td><td>S-universal010S</td></tr><tr><td>betadine solution 1%.</td><td>Korea Pharma</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>gauze 4*4</td><td>First Medical</td><td></td><td>22*30CM 320S</td></tr><tr><td>blade No. 23</td><td>Paragon</td><td></td><td>23</td></tr><tr><td>lahey retractor</td><td>V.Mueller</td><td></td><td>SU3960</td></tr><tr><td>kelly tissue scissors</td><td>SOLCO</td><td></td><td>05-1990</td></tr><tr><td>blade No. 11</td><td>Paragon</td><td></td><td>11</td></tr><tr><td>surgical marking pen</td><td>Aspen Surgical</td><td></td><td>Regular #2750</td></tr><tr><td>allis</td><td>V.Mueller</td><td></td><td>SU4055</td></tr><tr><td>tie suture</td><td>Covidein</td><td></td><td>non-needle</td></tr><tr><td>3.5&amp;times; surgical loupe</td><td>zeiss</td><td></td><td>eyemag smart</td></tr><tr><td>double clamp without frame</td><td>V.Mueller</td><td></td><td>CH7155</td></tr><tr><td>microscissors</td><td>AESCULAP</td><td></td><td>FD038R</td></tr><tr><td>Ringer&#039;s lactate</td><td>Daehan</td><td></td><td>500ml/1bag</td></tr><tr><td>amoxicillin&amp;ndash;clavulanate</td><td>Ilsung</td><td></td><td>0.6g/V</td></tr><tr><td>Meloxicam</td><td>Samil</td><td></td><td>7.5mg</td></tr><tr><td>propofol</td><td>Dong Kook</td><td></td><td>120mg/V</td></tr><tr><td>intravenous KCl solution</td><td>Daehan</td><td></td><td>20ml/50P</td></tr><tr><td>mosquito curved</td><td>SOLCO</td><td></td><td>013-0111</td></tr><tr><td>mosquito straight</td><td>SOLCO</td><td></td><td>05-1050</td></tr><tr><td>ethilone 10-0 suture</td><td>ethicone</td><td></td><td>10/0W1756</td></tr><tr><td>Vicryl 3-0.</td><td>ethicone</td><td></td><td>3/0W9890</td></tr><tr><td>buprenorphine</td><td>Hanlim</td><td></td><td>0.3mg</td></tr></tbody></table>

porcine as a training module for head and neck microvascular reconstruction

Porcine As a Training Module for Head and Neck Microvascular Reconstruction

Live models that resemble surgical conditions of humans are needed for training free-flap harvesting and anastomosis. Animal models for training purposes have been available for years in many surgical fields. We used the female (because they are easy to handle for the procedure) Yorkshire pigs for the head and neck reconstruction by harvesting the deep inferior epigastric artery perforator or the superior epigastric artery perforator flap. The anastomosis site (neck skin defect or tracheal wall defect) was prepared via the dissection of the common carotid artery and the internal jugular vein, in which 3.5&#215; loupe magnification was used for anastomosis as we use on human cases in real life. This procedure demonstrates a new training method using a reliable learning model and provides a detailed anatomy in a live scenario. We focused on the ischemia time, harvesting, vessel anastomosis, and designing the flap to fit the defect site. This model improves tissue handling and with the use of proper instruments can be repeated many times so that the surgeon is fully confident before starting the surgery on humans.

We performed the procedure on six pigs: cervical skin defect reconstruction on two pigs, tracheal reconstruction on two pigs, and free flap to test vascular anastomosis device in two pigs. The pigs were monitored for 3 months and there was no clinical sign of neurological deficit.
The mean time for ischemia was 50 min (range, 35-80 min); the time decreased as the procedure was repeated. The mean harvest time of the six pigs was ...

Here we present a protocol for the use of the pig superior epigastric artery perforator flap as a learning module for head and neck microvascular reconstruction.

Live models that resemble surgical conditions of humans are needed for training free-flap harvesting and anastomosis. Animal models for training purposes ...

porcine-as-training-module-for-head-neck-microvascular

Research

JoVE Journal

Medicine

Here we describe how to set up a small microsurgical practice station and a simple and inexpensive method for the training of microsurgery with non-living animal models.



Step By Step: Microsurgical training method combining two nonliving animal models

Currently any kind of vascularized composite allotransplantation depends on long-term-immunosuppression, difficult to support for non-life-critical indications. We present a new porcine tibial VCA model that can be used to study bone VCA and demonstrate the use of surgical angiogenesis to maintain bone viability without the need of long-term immune-modulation.

Surgical Angiogenesis in Porcine Tibial Allotransplantation: A New Large Animal Bone Vascularized Composite Allotransplantation Model

This study aims to develop a standard protocol of intra-operative neural monitoring of thyroid surgery in a porcine model. Here, we present a protocol to demonstrate general anesthesia, to compare different types of electrodes, and to investigate the electrophysiological characteristics of the normal and injured recurrent laryngeal nerves.

Intra-Operative Neural Monitoring of Thyroid Surgery in a Porcine Model

The present protocol describes the porcine fascio-cutaneous flap model and its potential use in vascularized composite tissue research.

A Reliable Porcine Fascio-Cutaneous Flap Model for Vascularized Composite Allografts Bioengineering Studies

In this protocol, novel pig vein bypass grafting was performed through a small incision in the left chest wall without cardiopulmonary bypass. A postoperative pathology study was done, which showed intimal thickening.

Establishment and Evaluation of a Porcine Vein Graft Disease Model

This protocol describes performing a craniectomy using a high-speed pneumatic drill on a 3-month-old Danish Landrace pig. The access is made through the frontal bone and reveals the ventral dura mater and underlying cerebral hemispheres. This procedure allows for access to a large portion of the pig brain.

Accessing the Porcine Brain via High-Speed Pneumatic Drill Craniectomy

This study presents a porcine model for evaluating small-diameter grafts in femoral arteries. The model mimics human vascular dynamics and comprehensively assesses graft patency, hemodynamics, and vascular remodeling. It offers a valuable platform for testing vascular grafts and monitoring them with Doppler ultrasound and angiography.

Femoral Vascular Graft Implantation in a Swine Model to Test Small-Diameter Vascular Grafts

We present a reproducible mouse model of heterotopic hindlimb-to-neck vascularized composite allotransplantation. This supermicrosurgical protocol, involving 0.3-0.5 mm vessel anastomoses, integrates nylon filament guidance and venous cuffing. It provides a reliable platform for translational studies on tolerance, ischemia-reperfusion injury, and immunological mechanisms in vascularized composite allotransplantation.

Heterotopic Hindlimb-to-Neck Transplantation in the Mouse: A Supermicrosurgical Model of Vascularized Composite Allotransplantation

Various methods exist for introducing ototoxic agents to the cochleae of animal models. Presented is a surgical protocol for delivery of ototoxic agents to the round window niche. The procedure is reliable, creates targeted intra-cochlear lesions, and avoids mechanical damage to the microarchitecture. Examination of cochlear self-repair/regeneration is possible.

The Mouse Round-window Approach for Ototoxic Agent Delivery: A Rapid and Reliable Technique for Inducing Cochlear Cell Degeneration

The aim of this article is to describe the methodology of exclusively endoscopic cadaveric middle ear dissection. Moreover, we aim to provide a comprehensive guide to endoscopic middle ear anatomy.

Discovering Middle Ear Anatomy by Transcanal Endoscopic Ear Surgery: A Dissection Manual

Learn microvascular head and neck reconstruction using a porcine superior epigastric artery perforator flap model. This training protocol helps beginner surgeons develop essential skills in a realistic surgical environment.

Porcine As a Training Module for Head and Neck Microvascular Reconstruction

Explore More Videos