Name: Preparation and Analysis of Histological Slides of Rat and Mouse Eyeballs to Evaluate the Retina (Video) | JoVE Journal
Uploaded: 2024-08-23T13:00:00.000+00:00
Duration: 7 min 1 s
Description: Learn histological slide preparation for rodent retina assessment using rat and mouse eyeballs. This protocol enables detailed cellular visualization with fewer artifacts for ophthalmic disease research.

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5 minutes

The work, including rats, was funded as part of the project TIME 2 MUW - teaching excellence as an opportunity for the development of the Medical University of Warsaw co-financed by the European Social Fund under the Operational Program Knowledge Education Development for 2014-2020, the number of the co-financing agreement: POWR.03.05.00-00-Z040/18-00. The work, including mice, was carried out as part of a project implemented in the years 2020 to 2022, financed by a subsidy for science obtained by the Medical University of Warsaw.

The research was performed in compliance with institutional guidelines. Eyeballs used in this study were obtained from animals included in an experiment conducted based on the study approval number WAW2/122/2020 issued by the 2nd Local Ethics Committee at the Warsaw University of Life Sciences in Warsaw, Poland. Our protocol was developed by examining mice aged 11 and 44 weeks and rats aged 6, 12, and 16 weeks.
1. Preparation of mouse eyeballs
NOTE: This protocol presents the method of&#160;preparing sections of mouse eyeballs and was&#160;developed using eyeballs harvested from:&#160;female C57Bl/6 mice aged 11 weeks (average&#160;weight 21 g), female C57Bl/6 mice aged 44&#160;weeks (average weight 25 g), female DBA/2&#160;mice aged 11 weeks (average weight 21.5 g),&#160;and female DBA/2 mice aged 44 weeks with&#160;glaucoma (average weight 25 g).
<ol>
	<li>Enucleation
	<ol>
		<li>Use small forceps to open the eyelids. Press the eyelids for the eyeball to prolapse.</li>
		<li>Dissect the eyeball from the socket by cutting off the tissue behind the eyeball with small, sharp scissors. Once the eyeball is removed from the orbit, cut off the protruding connective tissue and periocular muscles.
		<ol>
			<li>Mark the eyeballs for better orientation, for example, by tying a small suture on the stump of the tendon of the lateral rectus muscle of the eyeball to mark the temporal side of the eyeball.</li>
		</ol>
		</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Fixation of tissues
	<ol>
		<li>Place the enucleated eyeball in 1.5 mL microcentrifuge tubes and let it rest in 4 % solution of paraformaldehyde (PFA) dissolved in phosphate buffer saline (PBS) for 24 h.</li>
		<li>Following this, treat the eyeball for 24 h in a 10% solution of sucrose, then remove and place it for 24 h in a 20% solution of sucrose, and finally, remove and place for 24 h in a 30% solution of sucrose. 
		NOTE: Throughout the process, keep the eyeball at a low temperature of 4 &#176;C. Needle punctures for sucrose infiltration should be avoided to minimize the risk of eyeball damage.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Tissue freezing and storing
	<ol>
		<li>Remove the eyeball from the sucrose solution and dry it by lightly dabbing it with a paper towel.</li>
		<li>Place the eyeball in a clean 1.5 mL microcentrifuge tube and freeze at - 80 &#176;C for future processing. 
		NOTE: If stored at - 80 &#176;C, an eyeball can remain viable for up to 12 months until future processing.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Slide preparation
	<ol>
		<li>Thaw the eyeball at room temperature. Move it from the microcentrifuge tube into a cassette and rinse under running water for 20 min to wash out the sucrose.</li>
		<li>Dehydrate the eyeball by placing it into, and then removing it from the following solutions under a fume hood: 70% solution of ethyl alcohol (EtOH) for 10 min, 80 % solution of EtOH for 10 min, 96 % solution of EtOH for 10 min, 99.9 % solution of EtOH for 10 min, and acetone for 5 min.</li>
		<li>Clear the eyeball by placing it in xylene for 5 min under a fume hood.</li>
		<li>Melt the paraffin by placing some solid paraffin into a beaker and putting it into a laboratory incubator set to a temperature higher than the melting temperature specified by the paraffin manufacturer (the melting temperature of paraffin is between 46 &#176;C and 68 &#176;C). After the paraffin is fully melted (the time depends on the amount of used paraffin), move the eyeball into the beaker with paraffin and keep warm in the incubator for 1 h. During 1 h of paraffin infiltration into the tissue, stir the paraffin every 10 - 15 min. 
		NOTE: A tissue processor that enables paraffin infiltration while stirring the solution may be used for this step.</li>
		<li>Embed the eyeball into a paraffin block as described below.
		<ol>
			<li>Open the cassette and remove the top cover. Choose a metal mold and pour a small amount of paraffin to cover the bottom of the mold. Remove the eyeball from the cassette with forceps and place it onto the paraffin in the mold. Place the eyeball on its side to ensure cutting in the sagittal plane. 
			NOTE: Placing the eyeball on its side (with the anterior pole to one side and the posterior pole to the other) will enable cutting in the sagittal plane. This way, sections through the cornea, iris, ciliary body, pupil, peripheral, and central retina will be obtained.</li>
			<li>Briefly cool the mold on a cooling plate set to - 15 &#176;C for the paraffin to slightly solidify to anchor the tissue in place. Carefully cover the tissue with paraffin and the cassette bottom to form a block. Put the block on a cooling plate to fully solidify. Then, remove the block from the metal mold and place the paraffin blocks back onto the cooling plate for at least 15 min to cool before cutting.</li>
		</ol>
		</li>
		<li>Secure a paraffin block in the microtome. Set the microtome to trim the excess paraffin from the block (we set it to cut 15 &#181;m) and trim until the center of the eyeball. Change the microtome settings to cut thinner sections (we set it to cut 3.5 &#181;m) and place the section onto a slide. If using a microtome with an adjacent water bath, remove the excess water from the slide with a moist tissue. 
		NOTE: The goal is to obtain at least 3 cross-sections through the pupil. The less experienced the researcher, the more sections should be obtained to ensure sectioning at the level of the pupil. Place a couple of sections onto one slide. Also, for less experienced researchers, cut the tissue thicker, for example, into sections 4 &#181;m or 5 &#181;m thick. The use of a microtome with an adjacent water bath makes the process of transferring tissue sections onto slides much easier when compared to using microtomes without water baths. Another point worth noting is that the lens may be difficult to cut through. To minimize the risk of tissue damage by the brittle lens, only use sharp microtome blades designated to cut through hard tissues. Consider using one blade for trimming and another for cutting sections to minimize the blunting of the blade.</li>
		<li>Place the slide into a laboratory incubator set to 56 &#176;C for 30 min.</li>
		<li>Remove the slide from the incubator and begin staining it with hematoxylin and eosin (H&#38;E) manually by sequentially putting and removing the slide to and from the following solutions. Start with 7 min xylene, 5 min xylene (another beaker with a clean solution), and 5 min xylene (another beaker with a clean solution). Follow this with 2 min 96% EtOH, 1 min 96% EtOH (another beaker with a clean solution), 1 min 96% EtOH (another beaker with a clean solution).</li>
		<li>Wash in 5 min running water, then 2 min Mayer&#39;s hematoxylin, 2 min Mayer&#39;s hematoxylin (another beaker with a clean solution), 5 min running water, 5 min running water (another, clean beaker).</li>
		<li>Add 1% Eosin for 2 min, followed by 1 min 96% EtOH, 30 s 96% EtOH (another beaker with a clean solution), 30 s 96% EtOH (another beaker with a clean solution), 2 min xylene, 1 min xylene (another beaker with a clean solution), 2 min xylene (another beaker with a clean solution). 
		NOTE: Alternatively, use an automated slide stainer.</li>
		<li>Seal the slide using an automated slide sealer. The prepared slide is ready for storage and assessment under a light microscope. 
		NOTE: Alternatively, perform slide sealing manually by placing a thin layer of polystyrene mountant on the stained tissue and covering it with a glass coverslip. 
		CAUTION: Steps that include PFA, EtOH, acetone, and xylene should be performed under a laboratory fume hood.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
2. Preparation of rat eyeballs section and slide mounting
NOTE: This protocol presents the method of&#160;preparing sections of rat eyeballs and was&#160;developed using the eyeballs harvested from:&#160;male SHR rats aged 6 weeks (average weight&#160;115.5 g), male SHR rats aged 12 weeks with&#160;arterial hypertension (average weight 262.5 g),&#160;male WKY rats aged 6 weeks (average weight&#160;143.5 g), male WKY rats aged 12 weeks&#160;(average weight 265 g), male Lewis rats aged 12&#160;weeks (average weight 310 g), and male Lewis&#160;rats aged 16 weeks with induced diabetes&#160;mellitus (average weight 259 g).
<ol>
	<li>Enucleation
	<ol>
		<li>Use small forceps to open the eyelids. Press on the eyelids to prolapse the eyeball.</li>
		<li>Dissect the eyeball from the socket by cutting off the tissue behind the eyeball with small, sharp scissors. 
		NOTE: Mark the eyeballs for better orientation, for example, by tying a small suture on the stump of the tendon of the lateral rectus muscle of the eyeball to mark the temporal side of the eyeball.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Fixation of tissues
	<ol>
		<li>Place the enucleated eyeball in a 1.5 mL microcentrifuge tube and let it rest in a 4% solution of paraformaldehyde (PFA) dissolved in phosphate buffer saline (PBS) for 24 h.</li>
		<li>Following this, treat the eyeball for 24 h in a 10% solution of sucrose, then remove and place it for 24 h in a 20% solution of sucrose, and finally remove and place it for 24 h in a 30% solution of sucrose. 
		NOTE: Throughout the process, keep the eyeball at a low temperature of 4 &#176;C. Needle punctures for sucrose infiltration should be avoided to minimize the risk of eyeball damage.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Tissue freezing and storing
	<ol>
		<li>Remove the eyeball from the sucrose solution and dry it by lightly dabbing it with a paper towel.</li>
		<li>Place the eyeball in a clean 1.5 mL microcentrifuge tube and freeze it at -80 &#176;C for future processing. 
		NOTE: If stored at -80 &#176;C, the eyeball can remain viable for up to 12 months until future processing.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Slide preparation
	<ol>
		<li>Remove the eyeball from the freezer and from the microcentrifuge tube.Cut the eyeball into half along the sagittal plane with a sharp scalpel.Remove and discard the lens. 
		NOTE: This step is easiest to perform on a frozen eyeball, freshly taken from the freezer. During eyeball cutting, the lens may damage the surrounding tissue. To minimize the risk of damage, use a very sharp scalpel and remain cautious.</li>
		<li>Thaw the eyeball at room temperature. Move the two halves into a cassette and rinse under running water for 20 min to wash out the sucrose.</li>
		<li>Dehydrate the eyeball by placing it into and then removing it from the following solutions under a fume hood: 70% solution of ethyl alcohol (EtOH) for 15 min, 80% solution of EtOH for 15 min, 96% solution of EtOH for 15 min, 99.9% solution of EtOH for 15 min, and acetone for 7 min.</li>
		<li>Clear the eyeball by placing it in xylene for 7 min under a fume hood.</li>
		<li>Melt the paraffin by placing some solid paraffin into a beaker and putting it into a laboratory incubator set to a temperature higher than the melting temperature specified by the paraffin manufacturer (the melting temperature of paraffin is between 46 &#176;C and 68 &#176;C). After the paraffin is fully melted (the time depends on the amount of paraffin used), move the eyeball into the beaker with paraffin and keep warm in the incubator for 1 h. During 1 h of paraffin infiltration into the tissue, stir the paraffin every 10 - 15 min. 
		NOTE: A tissue processor that enables paraffin infiltration while stirring the solution may be used for this step.</li>
		<li>Embed the eyeball into a paraffin block as described below.
		<ol>
			<li>Open the cassette and remove the top cover. Choose a metal mold and pour a small amount of paraffin to cover the bottom of the mold. Remove the eyeball from the cassette with forceps and place it onto the paraffin in the mold. Place one eyeball half with the bottom of the cup up, and the other - down. 
			NOTE: Placing the eyeball halves with one half with the bottom of the cup up, and the other - down will enable tissue cutting in the sagittal plane. This way, sections through the cornea, iris, ciliary body, pupil, peripheral, and central retina will be obtained.</li>
			<li>Briefly cool the mold on a cooling plate set to - 15 &#176;C for the paraffin to slightly solidify and anchor the eyeball in place. Carefully cover the eyeball with paraffin and the cassette bottom to form a block. Put the block on a cooling plate to fully solidify. Then, remove the block from the metal mold and place the paraffin blocks back onto the cooling plate for at least 15 min to cool before cutting.</li>
		</ol>
		</li>
		<li>Secure a paraffin block in the microtome. Set the microtome to trim the excess paraffin from the block (we set it to cut 15 &#181;m) and trim until you reach the center of the eyeball. Change the microtome settings to cut thinner sections (we set it to cut 3.5 &#181;m) and place the section onto a slide. If you are using a microtome with an adjacent water bath, remove the excess water from the slide with a moist tissue. 
		NOTE: The goal is to obtain at least 3 cross-sections through the pupil. The less experienced the researcher, the more sections should be obtained to ensure sectioning at the level of the pupil. Place a couple of sections onto one slide. Also, for less experienced researchers, cut the tissue thicker, for example, into sections 4 &#181;m or 5 &#181;m thick. The use of a microtome with an adjacent water bath makes the process of transferring tissue sections onto slides much easier when compared to using microtomes without water baths.</li>
		<li>Remove the slide and begin staining with hematoxylin and eosin (H&#38;E) manually by sequentially putting and removing the slide to and from the following solutions. Start with 7 min xylene, 5 min xylene (another beaker with a clean solution), and 5 min xylene (another beaker with a clean solution). Follow this with 2 min 96% EtOH, 1 min 96% EtOH (another beaker with a clean solution), 1 min 96% EtOH (another beaker with a clean solution).</li>
		<li>Wash in 5 min running water, then 2 min Mayer&#39;s hematoxylin, 2 min Mayer&#39;s hematoxylin (another beaker with a clean solution), 5 min running water, 5 min running water (another, clean beaker).</li>
		<li>Add 1% Eosin for 2 min, followed by 1 min 96% EtOH, 30 s 96% EtOH (another beaker with a clean solution), 30 s 96% EtOH (another beaker with a clean solution), 2 min xylene, 1 min xylene (another beaker with a clean solution), 2 min xylene (another beaker with a clean solution). 
		NOTE: Alternatively, use an automated slide stainer.</li>
		<li>Seal the slide using an automated slide sealer. The prepared slides are ready for storage and assessment under a light microscope. 
		NOTE: Alternatively, perform slide sealing manually, by placing a thin layer of polystyrene mountant on the stained tissue and cover by a glass coverslip. 
		CAUTION: Steps that include PFA, EtOH, acetone, and xylene should be performed under a laboratory fume hood.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
3. Assessing the eyeball sections
<ol>
	<li>Slide scanning
	<ol>
		<li>Put the slide into a histopathological slide scanner and scan the sections using the scanning mode: 40x. Save the images as high-resolution digital files.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Slide analysis
	<ol>
		<li>Open the scanned file with the use of image viewing software. Find cross-pupil cross-sections and analyze three consecutive sections.</li>
		<li>Find the thickest part of the retina and magnify the image to 20x by pressing on the magnification box in the top right-hand corner and choosing 20x. Move the mouse to the level of ELM in the thickest part of the retina and press the right-hand button on the mouse, choose Annotate, and Ruler.</li>
		<li>Move the mouse towards the ILM and click the left-hand button. Title the measurement RT and check the boxes show title and show length. This way, the retinal thickness (RT) will be measured, and the measurement will be shown in &#181;m. Representative results are shown in Figure 2 and Figure 3.</li>
		<li>Use the ruler, measure the thickness of each retinal layer, including the ONL, OPL, INL, and IPL, and label them. Representative results are shown in Figure 4 and Figure 5.</li>
		<li>To count the number of cells within the GCL, establish a predetermined length of the retina. For example, for the mouse retina, use one 500 &#181;m section, and for the rat retina, use five 100 &#181;m sections.</li>
		<li>Using the ruler, measure the chosen distance along the GCL.Press the right-hand button on the mouse and select Annotate &#62; Saved &#62; 1x RBC. Click on each cell identified as a round, hematoxylin-stained body along the GCL over the predetermined length of the retina. Count the number of encircled cells. Representative results are shown in Figure 6 and Figure 7.</li>
		<li>After analyzing three consecutive sections, draw the average for all the measurements.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>

Assessing Retinal Thickness and Ganglion Cell Layer Counts in Rodent Eyeballs

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<li>Barber, A. J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Neural+apoptosis+in+the+retina+during+experimental+and+human+diabetes.+Early+onset+and+effect+of+insulin%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22J+Clin+Invest%22%5BJournal%5D)">Neural apoptosis in the retina during experimental and human diabetes. Early onset and effect of insulin.</a> J Clin Invest. 102 (4), 783-791 (1998).</li>
<li>Steinle, J. J., Kern, T. S., Thomas, S. A., Mcfadyen-Ketchum, L. S., Smith, C. P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Increased+basement+membrane+thickness%2C+pericyte+ghosts%2C+and+loss+of+retinal+thickness+and+cells+in+dopamine+beta+hydroxylase+knockout+mice%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Exp+Eye+Res%22%5BJournal%5D)">Increased basement membrane thickness, pericyte ghosts, and loss of retinal thickness and cells in dopamine beta hydroxylase knockout mice.</a> Exp Eye Res. 88 (6), 1014-1019 (2009).</li>
<li>Polley, E. H., Walsh, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((A+technique+for+flat+embedding+and+en+face+sectioning+of+the+mammalian+retina+for+autoradiography%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22J+Neurosci+Method%22%5BJournal%5D)">A technique for flat embedding and en face sectioning of the mammalian retina for autoradiography.</a> J Neurosci Method. 12 (1), 57-64 (1984).</li>
<li>Turner, K. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Hematoxylin+toluidine+blue-phloxinate+staining+of+glycol+methacrylate+sections+of+retina+and+other+tissues%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Stain+Technol%22%5BJournal%5D)">Hematoxylin toluidine blue-phloxinate staining of glycol methacrylate sections of retina and other tissues.</a> Stain Technol. 55 (4), 229-233 (1980).</li>
<li>Cheng, J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Correlation+of+optical+coherence+tomography+and+retinal+histology+in+normal+and+pro23his+retinal+degeneration+pig%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Transl+Vis+Sci+Technol%22%5BJournal%5D)">Correlation of optical coherence tomography and retinal histology in normal and pro23his retinal degeneration pig.</a> Transl Vis Sci Technol. 7 (6), 18(2018).</li>
</ol>

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

A histological examination of the mouse and rat eyeball is a powerful tool in the field of experimental ophthalmology. It can provide new information related to changes in the ocular structures in the course of ophthalmic diseases, which would otherwise not be observed in clinical settings. The described protocols present a simple method of conducting a histological analysis of the retina. The subtleties of the procedure needed to process anterior tissues, such as the cornea, are not described here.
In the presented study, enucleation was performed after euthanizing the animals because, aside from the eyeballs, other tissues (blood, kidneys) were harvested for research purposes. However, enucleation can also be performed on live animals under anesthesia. Wilding et al. have described the procedure14, and we would like to refer readers to this work to see photos of the enucleation procedure.
Although the protocols for mouse and rat eyeballs&#39; slide preparation are similar, the principal difference between mouse and rat eyeballs to consider while preparing slides is their size. The rats&#39; eyeballs have an 8x - 10x greater volume compared to mice, while the average axial length of a mouse eyeball is about 3.2 mm, and the axial length of a rat eyeball typically oscillates around 6.91 mm15,16. This facilitates the need to cut the rats&#39; eyeballs in half for better reagent penetration into the tissue during processing. Also, the time needed for reagent penetration into the rat tissue is longer than for mouse eyeballs. While cutting the rat eyeballs in half, it is important to use a sharp blade, as the firm, frozen lens may prove to be an obstacle.
Another point worth discussing is the fixation of tissues after harvesting from the animals. In the presented protocol, eyeballs, after enucleation, were fixed with PFA and immersed in solutions of sucrose. Sucrose acts as a cryoprotectant, as it protects cells of large tissues from damage by ice crystals that form during freezing17. Freezing the tissue enables researchers to store the tissue longer and also use it for various examinations in the future, including a histopathological analysis with a microtome (like presented), a histopathological analysis with a cryotome, and immunolabelling for assessment using confocal microscopy. For example, when cutting a rat eyeball in half (step 2.4.1), if the cut is performed efficiently and quickly (within 5 - 10 s), and the eye has no time to thaw, then one half of the eyeball may be used for histopathology, and another may be put back into the freezer for future immunolabelling. We do not recommend performing immunolabelling on tissues previously infiltrated with paraffin due to possible changes in the conformation of the protein epitopes after paraffin fixation. However, if a group of researchers is only planning to perform a histopathological analysis using a microtome, a simpler, standard method of fixing tissues for paraffin embedding can be used - for example, instead of performing steps 1.2.1 - 1.4.1 for mice or steps 2.2.1 - 2.4.2 for rats, place the tissues in a 10% solution of PFA for 24 h, and then store them in PBS in 4 &#176;C until processing. Sucrose will then not be needed as a cryoprotectant, as the tissues will not be frozen. Using this proposed method, the freezing process will be avoided, which may prove beneficial and lead to obtaining slides of higher quality. Freezing of the eyeballs, although it provides researchers with more freedom in choosing the time to perform the histopathological examination, is a step that can potentially decrease sample quality and lead to retinal detachment. However, one should remember that if storing tissues at 4 &#176;C, their biological stability will be shorter, and the tissues should be analyzed within 4 weeks. Also, while working with rat eyeballs, step 2.4.1 (cutting the eyeballs in half) will be much more difficult to perform on an unfrozen eyeball.
The presented methodology was developed based on the methodology described by Chai et al.18, Igarashi et al.19, Zhang et al.20, and Dorfman et al.21, on personal experience, and a method of trial and error. The method of measuring the thickness of the retina and the individual layers is described based on the methodology presented by Chai et al.16 and Barber et al.18,22. The retinal RGC counting method was developed from a review of the work of Chai et al.16, Zhang et al.18, Steinle et al.19, and Dorfman et al.18,20,21,23. Overall, the preparation of histopathological slides of eyeballs differs from a standard formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded tissue slide preparation because the eyeball is spherical and, therefore, more difficult to handle, cut, and section. Also, the sclera is a barrier for reagent infiltration into tissue. While preparing histological slides of eyeballs, one has to work more delicately and in a precise manner while being careful not to damage the delicate structures of the inner part of the eyeball. Modifications of this protocol may include the use of the methacrylate embedding technique instead of paraffin embedding, which may reportedly provide better morphological results. However, very few researchers have used this method for assessment of the retina24,25.
This protocol is not free from bias. The biggest problem that our team struggled with was retinal tearing and retinal detachment. Especially prone to tearing was the retina of rat eyeballs, as they had to be cut in half before slide preparation, and therefore the retina was more prone to damage. Due to retinal detachment, this protocol cannot be used for the assessment of the choroid, the retinal pigment epithelium, or the photoreceptor segment layer. However, our team believes that this protocol can be used to assess the inner retina (from the ILM to ELM). To minimize the amount of retinal tearing and detachment, each step of the protocol should be performed carefully, slowly, and with precise movements.
Histopathological analysis of the retina is not part of standard human diagnostics but is a widely used method in preclinical research. The results of the histopathological evaluation of the retina in preclinical studies can be related to and discussed with the results of optical coherent tomography (OCT)26, which is an examination that shows a cross-section through the retina during an in vivo examination that can be performed in a clinical setting, among humans in clinical trials. OCT, however, is a less detailed examination. Therefore, the information we can draw from histological studies conducted as part of preclinical research is irreplaceable and necessary for developing medical knowledge.

The eyeball is a globe-like structure constituting the organ of sight. The inside of the eyeball can be divided into two segments: the anterior segment, which includes the cornea, iris, ciliary body, lens, anterior chamber, and posterior chamber, and the posterior segment, which includes the vitreous body, retina, choroid, sclera, optic nerve head. The anterior chamber is located between the cornea and the iris1,2. The iris is a circular structure with an opening in the center called the pupil. At the junction of the cornea and the iris, there is the drainage angle, where a specialized system of trabeculae drains the aqueous humor from the eyeball to the venous system. The posterior chamber is bound by the iris, the ciliary body, and the lens, as well as the suspensory ligaments that hold the lens in place. Behind the lens, the vitreous body is located, which is the largest structure of the eyeball. The vitreous body adheres to the retina and stabilizes its position. The retina is surrounded by the choroid and the sclera1. The anatomy of the eyeball is summarized in Figure 1.
The eyeball wall constitutes three layers. The outermost layer is the sclera, which protects the eyeball from injury and maintains its shape. At the anterior pole of the eyeball, the sclera turns into a transparent cornea. Under the sclera, there is a vascular structure called the uvea, whose primary function is to nourish the structures of the eye. The uvea forms the choroid, and within the anterior pole, the ciliary body and the iris1. The innermost layer is the retina, which is a highly specialized structure of the eye, made up of neurons, glial cells, and pigment epithelial cells. The retinal neurons include the photoreceptor cells (rods and cones), horizontal cells, bipolar cells, amacrine cells, and retinal ganglion cells (RGCs). These cells are organized into complex layers, and their role is to receive and process light stimuli2,3. The glial cells of the retina comprise the M&#252;ller cells, astrocytes, and microglia, which are present in all layers of the retina. The many functions of glial cells include the nutrition of neurons, support of the blood-retina barrier, structural support of neurons to maintain the layered structure of the retina, regulation of neurons&#39; metabolism, secretion of biologically active proteins regulating functioning, growth, and survival of neurons, and regulating the immunological processes within the retina4. The pigment epithelial cells make up the outermost layer of the retina and act as a barrier between the choroid and photoreceptors. These cells regulate the bidirectional transport of waste products and nutrients and also protect the retina from excessive light-induced damage by absorbing light energy and neutralizing light-generated reactive oxygen species5.
The retina can be divided into ten layers: (i) the retinal pigment epithelium, (ii) the photoreceptor segment layer (rods and cones), (iii) external limiting membrane (ELM), (iv) outer nuclear layer (ONL), (v) outer plexiform layer (OPL), (vi) inner nuclear layer (INL), (vii) inner plexiform layer (IPL), (viii) ganglion cell layer (GCL), (ix) retinal nerve fiber layer (RNFL), and (x) internal limiting membrane (ILM)2. The nucleated layers of the retina include the ONL, INL, and GCL, while the layers with synaptic connections between cells include the OPL and IPL6. The nuclei of rods and cones form the ONL, and their axons extend into the OPL, where they connect to the dendrites of bipolar and horizontal cells. Within the INL, the horizontal, bipolar, and amacrine cell nuclei are located. Within the IPL, axon terminals of bipolar and amacrine cells synapse with dendrites of RGCs. Within the GCL, the RGCs make up most of the cell bodies, but also some dislocated amacrine cells can be found there. The axons of RGCs form the RNFL and, further - the optic nerve7,8,9.
Many ophthalmic diseases, such as neurodegenerative disorders of the retina, lead to irreversible and incurable blindness10. Vision is considered one of the most important senses11, and permanent blindness significantly reduces the patient&#39;s quality of life. To further the understanding of many diseases&#39; pathomechanisms, preclinical research using cell cultures or animal models is broadly performed. Preclinical studies using experimental animals provide an opportunity to assess the pathomechanisms underlying eye diseases and to develop new therapeutic strategies. Eye diseases can be modeled in both large animals (monkeys, cows, dogs, and cats) and small animals (rabbits, rats, mice, and zebrafish). The use of larger animals allows better access to the eye due to its size. Experiments performed with rodents, on the other hand, due to their relatively rapid reproduction, allow the breeding of inbred strains characterized by susceptibility to certain diseases12,13.
In animal models, enucleation is possible, which enables performing a detailed histopathological examination of the eyeball, with the assessment of minor pathologies that appear in particular structures of the eye during the development of the disease - an examination that can be very rarely performed among humans. Histopathological assessment is an extremely valuable tool while researching the pathomechanisms of ocular disorders. In the published literature, the descriptions of the methodology for histological examination of eyeballs are very limited, and step-by-step guides are lacking, which makes it difficult for beginners to recreate. This study aims to provide a simple and concise method of preparing histological slides and assessing the rat and mouse retina.

<table><tbody><tr><td>Acetone&amp;nbsp;</td><td>Chempur&amp;nbsp;</td><td>111024800</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Dumont Tweezers #5, 11cm, 0.05 x 0.01mm Tips</td><td>World Precision Instruments</td><td>14095</td><td>small, microsurgical forceps</td></tr><tr><td>Eosin</td><td>Mar-Four</td><td>4P.05.2001/L</td><td>Aqueous solution</td></tr><tr><td>Ethyl alcohol 96 %</td><td>Chempur&amp;nbsp;</td><td>CH.ET.AL.96%CZDA.CH</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Ethyl alcohol 99.9 %</td><td>Chempur&amp;nbsp;</td><td>CH.ETYL.ALK.99,9%BW</td><td>Use to prepare 70% and 80% solutions of EtOH</td></tr><tr><td>Glacier - 86 &amp;deg;C Ultralow Temperature Freezer NU-9483E</td><td>NuAire</td><td>13027D0034</td><td>Freezing temperature - 80 &amp;deg;C</td></tr><tr><td>Glass slides</td><td>Mar-Four</td><td>MI.15.01673</td><td>Ground glass slides with a double-sided matte field for description</td></tr><tr><td>Leica CV5030 Fully Automated Glass Coverslipper</td><td>Leica Biosystems&amp;nbsp;</td><td>14,04,78,80,101</td><td>Automated slide sealer&amp;nbsp;</td></tr><tr><td>Mayer&#039;s hematoxylin</td><td>Chempur&amp;nbsp;</td><td>124687402</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Metal base molds 15 mm&amp;nbsp; x 15 mm</td><td>Leica Biosystems&amp;nbsp;</td><td>3803081</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Microme HM 340 E</td><td>Thermo Scientific</td><td>90-519-0</td><td>Microtome</td></tr><tr><td>Microtome razor blades</td><td>Mar-Four</td><td>HI.N.35</td><td>Cutting angle 35&amp;deg;</td></tr><tr><td>Micro-Twin biopsy cassette</td><td>Mar-Four</td><td>LN.13874550</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Microwave Hybrid Tissue Processor</td><td>Milestone</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Multistainer Leica ST5020</td><td>Leica Biosystems&amp;nbsp;</td><td></td><td>Automated slide stainer&amp;nbsp;</td></tr><tr><td>NanoZoomer 2.0-HT slide scanner</td><td>Hamamatsu</td><td>C9600</td><td>Histopathological slide scanner</td></tr><tr><td>NDP.view2 Image viewing software</td><td>Hamamatsu</td><td>U12388-01</td><td>Image viewing software</td></tr><tr><td>Paraffin Pathowax Plus</td><td>Mar-Four</td><td>4P.PWP.010</td><td>Melting temperature 56 &amp;deg;C - 58 &amp;deg;C</td></tr><tr><td>Paraformaldehyde</td><td>Sigma - Aldrich</td><td>441244-1KG</td><td>Prepare a 4% solution in PBS</td></tr><tr><td>PBS Tablets</td><td>Merck Millipore</td><td>524650-1EA</td><td>Use to prepare a solution of phosphate buffer saline, per manufacturer&#039;s instructions</td></tr><tr><td>Pierce Microcentrifuge Tubes, 1.5 mL</td><td>Thermo Scientific</td><td>69715</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Refrigerator-freezer EN14000AW</td><td>Electrolux</td><td>925032562-00</td><td>refrigeration 4 &amp;deg;C</td></tr><tr><td>Scalpel blade</td><td>Swann-Morton</td><td>T.OST.SKAL00.024</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Sucrose</td><td>Chempur&amp;nbsp;</td><td>427720906</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>SuperCut Spring Scissors, 12.5cm, Curved</td><td>World Precision Instruments</td><td>501925</td><td>curved, small microsurgical scissors</td></tr><tr><td>Tape for automatic sealers</td><td>Mar-Four</td><td>KP-3020/SMRH001</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Xylene</td><td>Chempur&amp;nbsp;</td><td>CH.KSYL.5l.METAL.OP&amp;nbsp;</td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

preparation and analysis of histological slides of rat and mouse eyeballs to evaluate the retina

Preparation and Analysis of Histological Slides of Rat and Mouse Eyeballs to Evaluate the Retina

A rodent eyeball is a powerful tool for researching the pathomechanisms of many ophthalmic diseases, such as glaucoma, hypertensive retinopathy, and many more. Preclinical experiments enable researchers to examine the efficacy of novel drugs, develop new methods of treatment, or seek new pathomechanisms involved in the disease's onset or progression. A histological examination provides a lot of information necessary to assess the effects of the conducted experiments and can reveal degeneration, tissue remodeling, infiltration, and many other pathologies. In clinical research, there is rarely any chance of obtaining eye tissue suitable for a histological examination, which is why researchers should take advantage of the opportunity offered by the examination of eyeballs from rodents. This manuscript presents a protocol for the histological preparation of rodent eyeballs' sections. The procedure is presented for the eyeballs of mice and rats and has the following steps: (i) harvesting the eyeball, (ii) preserving the eyeball for further analysis, (iii) processing the tissue in paraffin, (iv) preparing slides, (v) staining with hematoxylin and eosin, (vi) assessing the tissue under a light microscope. With the proposed method, the retina can be easily visualized and assessed in detail.

With the use of the presented protocol, the anatomy and morphology of specific structures of the eyeball can be assessed in detail. Our team focuses on researching the pathomechanisms of neurodegeneration in retinal disorders, such as glaucoma, diabetic retinopathy, and hypertensive retinopathy. To assess the features of neurodegeneration in the retina, we evaluated the RT (mouse eyeball -Figure 2, rat eyeball -Figure 3), ONL, OPL, INL, and IPL (mouse eyeball -Figure 4, rat eyeball -Figure 5), and number of cells of the GCL (mouse eyeball -Figure 6, rat eyeball -Figure 7). The RT and cells of the GCL are expected to be highest in the central retina and lowest in the periphery. By cutting the eyeball at the level of the pupil, cross-sections through the central (at the posterior pole of the eyeball) and peripheral (close to the ciliary body) retina are achieved on one slide.
While counting GCL cells can be considered quite objective, bias caused by skewed sectioning may influence the results of measuring the specific retinal layers. To avoid bias, the measurements can be presented as the ratio of the thickness of a given layer to the RT value: ONL/RT, OPL/RT, INL/RT, and IPL/RT.
<img alt="Human eye anatomy, labeled diagram with retina, lens, optic nerve, cornea; educational use." class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/66663/66663fig01.jpg" data-altupdatedat="1788304762000" data-alt="Figure 1"> 
Figure 1: Anatomy of the eyeball. Sagittal cross-section of an eyeball with the labeling of its biggest structures. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/66663/66663fig01large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Histology retina cross-section, diagram; 125 µm thickness; cellular layers; microscopy analysis." class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/66663/66663fig02.jpg" data-altupdatedat="1788304762000" data-alt="Figure 2"> 
Figure 2: Retinal thickness in a mouse. Measurement of the retinal thickness (RT) from the external limiting membrane to the internal limiting membrane at the widest point, marked with the green bar. Mouse eyeball (strain: C57Bl/6, age: 44 weeks). The scale bar in the left-hand corner shows the length of 100 µm. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/66663/66663fig02large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Histology section, retinal structure, microscope image, cellular layers, thickness measurement, microscopy." class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/66663/66663fig03.jpg" data-altupdatedat="1788304762000" data-alt="Figure 3"> 
Figure 3: Retinal thickness in a rat. Measurement of the retinal thickness (RT) from the external limiting membrane to the internal limiting membrane at the widest point, marked with the green bar. Rat eyeball (strain: Lewis, age: 16 weeks). The scale bar in the left-hand corner shows the length of 100 µm. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/66663/66663fig03large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Retinal cross-section diagram with labeled layers; histology, microscopic analysis, OPL, ONL, INL." class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/66663/66663fig04.jpg" data-altupdatedat="1788304762000" data-alt="Figure 4"> 
Figure 4: Retinal layers in a mouse. Measurement of the thickness of individual retinal layers: outer nuclear layer (ONL), outer plexiform layer (OPL), inner nuclear layer (INL), and inner plexiform layer (IPL), marked with green bars. Mouse eyeball (strain: C57Bl/6, age: 44 weeks). The scale bar in the left-hand corner shows the length of 100 µm. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/66663/66663fig04large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Retinal tissue section, microscopy image, shows OPL, IPL, ONL, INL layers with thickness measurements." class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/66663/66663fig05.jpg" data-altupdatedat="1788304762000" data-alt="Figure 5"> 
Figure 5: Retinal layers in a rat. Measurement of the thickness of individual retinal layers: outer nuclear layer (ONL), outer plexiform layer (OPL), inner nuclear layer (INL), and inner plexiform layer (IPL), marked with green bars. Rat eyeball (strain: Lewis, age: 16 weeks). The scale bar in the left-hand corner shows the length of 100 µm. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/66663/66663fig05large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Microscopy image of retinal cross-section showing layered structure, labeled scale indicating size." class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/66663/66663fig06.jpg" data-altupdatedat="1788304762000" data-alt="Figure 6"> 
Figure 6: Counting cells of the ganglion cell layer in a mouse. The method of counting the cells of the ganglion cell layer (GCL) along the retina on the length of 500 µm. Single cell bodies were identified as round, hematoxylin-stained bodies located within the ganglion cell layer. The cells are marked with black circles. Mouse eyeball (strain: DBA/2, age: 44 weeks). The scale bar in the left-hand corner shows the length of 100 µm. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/66663/66663fig06large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Histological section, light microscopy image; tissue layers, 100 µm scale, educational purpose." class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/66663/66663fig07.jpg" data-altupdatedat="1788304762000" data-alt="Figure 7"> 
Figure 7: Counting cells of the ganglion cell layer in a rat. The method of counting the cells of the ganglion cell layer (GCL) along the retina on the length of 100 µm. Single-cell bodies were identified as round, hematoxylin-stained bodies located within the ganglion cell layer. The cells are marked with black circles. Rat eyeball (strain: Lewis, age: 16 weeks). The scale bar in the left-hand corner shows the length of 100 µm. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/66663/66663fig07large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>

This manuscript presents a protocol for the histological preparation of slides from rodent eyeballs. With the proposed method, the inner retina can be easily visualized and assessed under a light microscope. The procedure is presented for the eyeballs of mice and rats.

A rodent eyeball is a powerful tool for researching the pathomechanisms of many ophthalmic diseases, such as glaucoma, hypertensive retinopathy, and many ...

preparation-analysis-histological-slides-rat-mouse-eyeballs-to

Research

JoVE Journal

Medicine

The protocol described here is for structural assessment of a wholemount retinal preparation. This includes descriptions of tissue dissection, mounting onto a hydrophilized polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) membrane insert, bolus loading with fluorescent markers, and a comparison of fixation with carbodiimide and paraformaldehyde for immunohistochemical analysis of cellular and synaptic components.

Optimized Protocol for Retinal Wholemount Preparation for Imaging and Immunohistochemistry

The rodent retina has long been recognized as an accessible window to the brain. In this technical paper we provide a protocol that employs the mouse model of oxygen-induced retinopathy to study the mechanisms that lead to failure of vascular regeneration within the central nervous system after ischemic injury. The described system can also be harnessed to explore strategies to promote regrowth of functional blood vessels within the retina and CNS.

Assessment of Vascular Regeneration in the CNS Using the Mouse Retina

We demonstrate three different tissue preparation techniques for immunohistochemical visualization of rat retinal microvascular pericytes, i.e., cryo-sections, whole-mounts, and hypotonic isolation of the vascular network.

Retinal Cryo-sections, Whole-Mounts, and Hypotonic Isolated Vasculature Preparations for Immunohistochemical Visualization of Microvascular Pericytes

This report describes comprehensive methods for preparing frozen mouse retina sections for immunohistochemistry (IHC).  Methods described include dissection of the ocular posterior cup, paraformaldehyde fixation, embedding in Optimal Cutting Temperature (OCT) media and tissue orientation, sectioning and immunostaining.

Preparation of Mouse Retinal Cryo-sections for Immunohistochemistry

Diabetic retinopathy is one of the leading causes of blindness. Histology, blood-retinal barrier breakdown assay, and fluorescence angiography are valuable techniques to understand the pathophysiology of the retina, which could further enhance the efficient drug screening against diabetic retinopathy.

Retinal Pathophysiological Evaluation in a Rat Model

The goal of this protocol is to characterize a novel model of glaucomatous neurodegeneration based on 360° thermic cauterization of limbal vascular plexus, inducing subacute ocular hypertension.

Full-Circle Cauterization of Limbal Vascular Plexus for Surgically Induced Glaucoma in Rodents

This paper presents a protocol for ocular micro-dissection in rodents. The process involves the enucleation of the eyeball along with the nictitating membrane (i.e., the third eyelid). This is then followed by the separation of the posterior and anterior eye cups.

Microdissection of the Rodent Eye

Mouse models can be useful tools for investigating the biology of the retinal pigmented epithelium (RPE). It has been established that mice can develop an array of RPE pathologies. Here, we describe a phenotyping protocol to elucidate and quantify RPE pathologies in mice using light, transmission electron, and confocal microscopy.

A Protocol to Evaluate and Quantify Retinal Pigmented Epithelium Pathologies in Mouse Models of Age-Related Macular Degeneration

A protocol for preparing mouse retinal cryosections and performing immunostaining on photoreceptors is described. This article enables researchers to consistently produce mouse retinal frozen sections with well-preserved morphology and high-quality immunostaining results.

Cryosectioning and Immunostaining of Mouse Retina

B7-H1 (PD-L1) and its binding to PD-1 provide a major tumor-induced immunosuppressive signal in the tumor’s microenvironment.   An immunohistochemical staining technique to characterize the expression and localization of B7-H1 in pancreatic adenocarcinoma is described here.

Immunohistochemical Staining of B7-H1 (PD-L1) on Paraffin-embedded Slides of Pancreatic Adenocarcinoma Tissue

Learn histological slide preparation for rodent retina assessment using rat and mouse eyeballs. This protocol enables detailed cellular visualization with fewer artifacts for ophthalmic disease research.

Preparation and Analysis of Histological Slides of Rat and Mouse Eyeballs to Evaluate the Retina

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