Name: Harmonic Radar Tags for Insect Tracking: Lightweight, Low-cost, and Accessible (Video) | JoVE Journal
Uploaded: 2025-05-13T12:00:00.000+00:00
Duration: 14 min 44 s
Description: Learn to fabricate lightweight harmonic radar tags using Schottky diodes and nitinol wire for tracking small insects. This accessible method enables entomologists to study insect behavior and ecology in field conditions.

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5 minutes

We would like to thank Kate Fairbanks and James Snyder (Florida Department of Agriculture &#38; Consumer Services), Nicholas Manoukis (USDA-ARS-PBARC), James Yoder (Eastern Mennonite University), and Stefano De Faveri (Queensland Department of Agriculture and Fisheries) for reviewing this protocol.

1. Preparation
<ol>
	<li>Assemble all the materials needed for tag making: nitinol wire (0.0254 mm for small tags, 0.0762 mm for large tags), Schottky diodes (one per tag), conductive adhesives (silver conductive epoxy is suggested for maximum strength, silver paint for lighter tags) and 3D printed jigs to be used for wire cutting and tag assembly (see Table of Materials).</li>
	<li>Ensure the availability of two different-sized nitinol wires, 25 &#181;m and 75 &#181;m, to be used in small and large tags, respectively.</li>
</ol>
2. Large tag
NOTE: This section presents the assembly of large tags. It is important to have two wires of the correct antenna length (8.25 cm to match the transceiver frequency) for the large tags.
<ol>
	<li>Use the measuring jig to reproducibly cut the wires to the desired length (8.25 cm) using a pair of scissors.
	<ol>
		<li>First, use the single-sided tape to secure the wire to the jig.</li>
		<li>Wrap the wire around the jig (20-30 times max), maintaining light tension.</li>
		<li>Cut the wires in the channel using scissors. The size of the wire obtained is 8.25 cm.</li>
		<li>Then carefully remove the wires from the cylinder. 
		NOTE: Two wires are needed for each tag.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Prepare the diode for wire attachment.
	<ol>
		<li>Secure the diode packaging to the microscope using tape. Pull back the cover using forceps and remove the diodes with double-sided tape.</li>
		<li>Place double-sided tape over the packaging to remove diodes easily. 
		NOTE: At this point, all the diodes are in the correct orientation, with contacts facing up to facilitate antenna bonding.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Affix the tape to the jig with the diodes facing up. Place cardstock parallel to the diodes on each side and smooth the edges to prevent the antenna from sticking to the tape.</li>
	<li>Align the wires next to the diodes in preparation for the attachment and under a microscope,&#160;position the wires so that they are each touching a single electrical contact. 
	NOTE: Wires should not touch both electrical contacts.</li>
	<li>Apply conductive material to each contact using an insect pin. Ensure to cover both the contact point and the wire.</li>
	<li>Take care not to spread the conductive material between each contact. If the conductive material blends together or touches the other wire or contact, this will greatly reduce the signal strength of the tag.</li>
	<li>Reapply conductive material as needed to secure each wire and ensure electrical conductivity.</li>
	<li>Allow tags to stay undisturbed for several hours to let the conductive material harden.</li>
</ol>
3. Small tag
NOTE: This section presents the assembly of small tags.
<ol>
	<li>Cut wires to lengths of 4.1 cm.</li>
	<li>Attach the wire to the jig with the one-sided tape, being careful not to over-tension the wire.</li>
	<li>Wind the wire around the jig and cut it along the groove with scissors. 
	NOTE: Each tag requires two segments of the wire prepared above.</li>
	<li>Prepare the diodes for attachment. Place double-sided tape on the jig and transfer the diodes to the tape with forceps, maintaining an appropriate space between them.</li>
	<li>Under a microscope, ensure contacts are facing up, facilitating the alignment of wire and diode. Realign these as needed, and ensure they are pressed into the tape to prevent movement during the assembly process.</li>
	<li>Place single-sided tape along diodes to elevate the wire at the level of contact and prevent it from sticking to the underlying tape. Smooth down the tape and place the wires in the general vicinity of the diode.</li>
	<li>Under the microscope, place the wire on each contact point with care to prevent wire overlap.</li>
	<li>Apply the conductive material to the contact and wire and ensure that the conductive material does not flow together and flood the diode plane.</li>
	<li>Allow tags to&#160;set undisturbed for several hours to let the conductive material harden.</li>
</ol>
4. Large tag attachment - Queensland longhorn beetle (QLB)
<ol>
	<li>Wear appropriate PPE to protect from UV exposure (protective eyewear is recommended).</li>
	<li>Secure the beetle to facilitate access to the attachment site. Hold the beetle gently, applying slight pressure to the table surface.</li>
	<li>Apply a drop of UV adhesive to the attachment site.</li>
	<li>Orient the tag and place the diode with the electrical contacts facing down onto the thorax.</li>
	<li>Once satisfied with the position of the tag, cure the glue using UV light at a variety of different angles for a total of 5 to 10 s. This UV adhesive has been previously used to attach tags to larger insects without apparent negative effects of UV exposure11.</li>
</ol>
5. Small tags attachment - tephritid fruit flies
<ol>
	<li>Wear appropriate PPE to protect from UV exposure (protective eyewear is recommended).</li>
	<li>Anesthetize flies at 4 oC. Typically, flies experience cessation of movement after 10-15 min.</li>
	<li>Dispense a drop of glue and immerse the diode&#160;of the tag into the UV adhesive. Make sure to roll the diode in the glue to ensure full coverage. Use care to prevent excess adhesive from coating the wire.</li>
	<li>Secure the insect between the thumb and forefinger to present the attachment site.</li>
	<li>Orient the tag and place it longitudinally on the dorsal side of the fly thorax. Move the tag back and forth to spread the adhesive and ensure a secure connection. Use care not to apply glue to the head or wings.</li>
	<li>When satisfied with the placement of the tag, cure the adhesive using a UV light. Several studies have used this UV adhesive to attach tags to flies without apparent negative effects of UV exposure6,10,12,13.</li>
</ol>
6. Obtaining signals
<ol>
	<li>Test the flight ability of insects after tag attachment. Do this by testing in a flight tube.</li>
	<li>Then let the flies take off into their habitat.</li>
	<li>Use a transceiver (see Table of Materials) to obtain signals from large and small insects. 
	NOTE: When aligned with a tag, the transceiver produces a sound. When the transceiver is rotated 90 degrees, a weak or no signal is obtained due to the misalignment of the tag and the transceiver.</li>
</ol>

<ol><li>Lennox, R. J., Blouin-Demers, G., Rous, A. M., Cooke, S. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Tracking+invasive+animals+with+electronic+tags+to+assess+risks+and+develop+management+strategies%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Biol+Invas%22%5BJournal%5D)">Tracking invasive animals with electronic tags to assess risks and develop management strategies.</a> Biol Invas. 18, 1219-1233 (2016).</li>
<li>Batsleer, F., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((The+neglected+impact+of+tracking+devices+on+terrestrial+arthropods%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Methods+Ecol+Evol%22%5BJournal%5D)">The neglected impact of tracking devices on terrestrial arthropods.</a> Methods Ecol Evol. 11 (3), 350-361 (2020).</li>
<li>Ultra-miniature bluetooth tag with antenna on package for red palm weevil tracking. Bilal, R. M., Reyes, Z. L., Shamim, A. 2021 1st International Conference on Microwave, Antennas & Circuits (ICMAC), , 1-3 (2021).</li>
<li>Daniel Kissling, W., Pattemore, D. E., Hagen, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Challenges+and+prospects+in+the+telemetry+of+insects%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Biol+Rev%22%5BJournal%5D)">Challenges and prospects in the telemetry of insects.</a> Biol Rev. 89 (3), 511-530 (2014).</li>
<li>Nunes-Silva, P., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Applications+of+RFID+technology+on+the+study+of+bees%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Insect+Soc%22%5BJournal%5D)">Applications of RFID technology on the study of bees.</a> Insect Soc. 66, 15-24 (2019).</li>
<li>Miller, N. D., Yoder, T. J., Manoukis, N. C., Carvalho, L. A., Siderhurst, M. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Harmonic+radar+tracking+of+individual+melon+flies%2C+Zeugodacus+cucurbitae%2C+in+Hawaii%3A+Determining+movement+parameters+in+cage+and+field+settings%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22PLoS+One%22%5BJournal%5D)">Harmonic radar tracking of individual melon flies, Zeugodacus cucurbitae, in Hawaii: Determining movement parameters in cage and field settings.</a> PLoS One. 17 (11), e0276987(2022).</li>
<li>Lövei, G. L., Stringer, I. A., Devine, C. D., Cartellieri, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Harmonic+radar+-+A+method+using+inexpensive+tags+to+study+invertebrate+movement+on+land%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22NZ+J+Ecol%22%5BJournal%5D)">Harmonic radar - A method using inexpensive tags to study invertebrate movement on land.</a> NZ J Ecol. , 187-193 (1997).</li>
<li>Riley, J. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&safe=off&q=author%3aRiley%2C+JR+%22Adaption+of+harmonic+radar+for+tracking+tsetse+flies%22">Adaption of harmonic radar for tracking tsetse flies</a>. , Natural Resources Research Institute. (1995).</li>
<li>O'Neal, M. E., Landis, D., Rothwell, E., Kempel, L., Reinhard, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Tracking+insects+with+harmonic+radar%3A+A+case+study%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Am.+Entomol%22%5BJournal%5D)">Tracking insects with harmonic radar: A case study.</a> Am. Entomol. 50 (4), 212-218 (2004).</li>
<li>Hurst, A. L., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Tracking+and+modeling+the+movement+of+Queensland+fruit+flies%2C+Bactrocera+tryoni%2C+using+harmonic+radar+in+papaya+fields%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Sci+Rep%22%5BJournal%5D)">Tracking and modeling the movement of Queensland fruit flies, Bactrocera tryoni, using harmonic radar in papaya fields.</a> Sci Rep. 14 (1), 17521(2024).</li>
<li>Siderhurst, M. S., Murman, K. M., Kaye, K. T., Wallace, M. S., Cooperband, M. F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Radio+telemetry+and+harmonic+radar+tracking+of+the+spotted+lanternfly%2C+Lycorma+delicatula+%28white%29%28Hemiptera%3A+Fulgoridae%29%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Insects%22%5BJournal%5D)">Radio telemetry and harmonic radar tracking of the spotted lanternfly, Lycorma delicatula (white)(Hemiptera: Fulgoridae).</a> Insects. 15 (1), 17(2023).</li>
<li>Tomerini, J. M., De Faveri, M. G., De Faveri, S. G., Wright, C., Siderhurst, M. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Impacts+of+harmonic+radar+tagging+on+the+flight+ability+of+male+Bactrocera+tryoni+and+Bactrocera+jarvisi+%28Diptera%2C+Tephritidae%29%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Austral+Entomol%22%5BJournal%5D)">Impacts of harmonic radar tagging on the flight ability of male Bactrocera tryoni and Bactrocera jarvisi (Diptera, Tephritidae).</a> Austral Entomol. 64 (1), e12728(2025).</li>
<li>Welty Peachey, A. M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Wind+effects+on+individual+male+and+female+Bactrocera+jarvisi+%28Diptera%3A+Tephritidae%29+tracked+using+harmonic+radar%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Environ+Entomol%22%5BJournal%5D)">Wind effects on individual male and female Bactrocera jarvisi (Diptera: Tephritidae) tracked using harmonic radar.</a> Environ Entomol. , nvae108(2024).</li>
<li>Mascanzoni, D., Wallin, H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((The+harmonic+radar%3A+A+new+method+of+tracing+insects+in+the+field%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Ecol+Entomol%22%5BJournal%5D)">The harmonic radar: A new method of tracing insects in the field.</a> Ecol Entomol. 11 (4), 387-390 (1986).</li>
<li>Boiteau, G., Colpitts, B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((The+potential+of+portable+harmonic+radar+technology+for+the+tracking+of+beneficial+insects%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22IInt+J+Pest+Manag%22%5BJournal%5D)">The potential of portable harmonic radar technology for the tracking of beneficial insects.</a> IInt J Pest Manag. 50 (3), 233-242 (2004).</li>
<li>Maggiora, R., Saccani, M., Milanesio, D., Porporato, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((An+innovative+harmonic+radar+to+track+flying+insects%3A+The+case+of+Vespa+velutina%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Sci+Rep%22%5BJournal%5D)">An innovative harmonic radar to track flying insects: The case of Vespa velutina.</a> Sci Rep. 9 (1), 11964(2019).</li>
<li>Milanesio, D., Saccani, M., Maggiora, R., Laurino, D., Porporato, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Recent+upgrades+of+the+harmonic+radar+for+the+tracking+of+the+Asian+yellow-legged+hornet%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Ecol+Evol%22%5BJournal%5D)">Recent upgrades of the harmonic radar for the tracking of the Asian yellow-legged hornet.</a> Ecol Evol. 7 (13), 4599-4606 (2017).</li>
<li>Ala, R., Rouse, C. D., Colpitts, B. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((An+Extra+low-mass+harmonic+radar+transponder+for+insect+tracking+applications%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22IEEE+Trans+Radar+Syst%22%5BJournal%5D)">An Extra low-mass harmonic radar transponder for insect tracking applications.</a> IEEE Trans Radar Syst. 1, 146-154 (2023).</li>
<li>Riley, J., Smith, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Design+considerations+for+an+harmonic+radar+to+investigate+the+flight+of+insects+at+low+altitude%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Comput+Electron+Agric%22%5BJournal%5D)">Design considerations for an harmonic radar to investigate the flight of insects at low altitude.</a> Comput Electron Agric. 35 (2-3), 151-169 (2002).</li>
</ol>

We have no conflicts of interest to disclose.

In this protocol, we describe and demonstrate how to fabricate two sizes of harmonic radar tags. In addition, we have shown how to attach these tags to insects using UV-cured adhesives and demonstrated transceiver signal strength. This protocol has been refined to allow for the streamlined fabrication of many low-cost HR tags with minimal specialized laboratory equipment. Additionally, the protocol should be accessible to researchers with experience manipulating objects under a dissecting microscope. We recommend that persons attempting to make tags begin with larger tags to develop skills in manipulating the diodes and applying the conductive adhesives. These skills can be difficult at first, but we have found from experience (teaching over 20 people) that the learning curve allows people to progress relatively quickly to making smaller tags with speed and reproducibility.
While the fabrication of two tag sizes was shown, we have also made tags with an intermediate-sized diode6, using both the smaller and larger diameter nitinol wire. Different applications, such as insect size and required detection range, influence&#160;the choice of diode and wire sizes.
The tag design used in this protocol is simpler than others used to track insects15,16,17,18. A commonly used design is to have a loop in the antenna, thereby creating a DC short&#160;across the diode18,19. Tags with loops in their antennas are usually mounted vertically on the thorax as opposed to longitudinally, as shown in this protocol. Vertical orientation potentially allows better alignment of tag and transceiver while the insect is in flight (as insects generally do not&#160;fly upside-down or with their legs toward the side). However, vertical tag orientation moves the center of the tag mass away from the insect&#39;s center of mass, thereby potentially having a greater influence on balance and flight ability.

Employing tracking devices to study the movements of vertebrates has long been a standard approach for collecting data related to the behavior and ecology of larger animals such as mammals, birds, and fish, with tracking primarily utilizing radio telemetry and GPS tracking1. However, until relatively recently, these tracking methods have been unavailable to entomologists due to the prohibitively large size and mass of the tracking devices that must be attached2. Technologies applied to insect tracking include radio telemetry, Bluetooth, RFID, and harmonic radar2,3. Of these, radio telemetry is by far the most used method to track larger insects2. It offers a longer detection range and unique signals for each tracked insect. This method, however, requires expensive tags that have limited shelf and field life and are heavy, generally at least 150 mg. Bluetooth is the least developed technique currently, with smaller tags than radio telemetry but a shorter range as well3. RFID tags can be very small in size and are quite inexpensive but have the shortest range (often only a few mm)4. Insect tagging with RFID tags has most commonly been used to study bee workers entering and leaving the hive5. By contrast, harmonic radar tags are lighter by at least an order of magnitude than radio telemetry tags, inexpensive, and have detection ranges that allow field tracking of much smaller insects6 (Figure 1).
Harmonic radar uses a transceiver that emits a signal that energizes the tag carried by the insect and receives the frequency-doubled return signal sent by the tag7,8,9 (Figure 2). While a number of studies have described the use of harmonic radar tags with medium-sized insects6,10,11,12,13, there is no proper demonstration of how to fabricate a tag. In this article, we provide step-by-step instructions on how to fabricate two different sizes of harmonic radar tags, each constructed from a Schottky diode and nitinol wire. Smaller tags are lighter and work better for smaller insects6, while the larger tags have a greater range and can be accommodated by larger insects11. The nitinol wire is a critical design component because this wire is flexible, thereby letting the tagged insect move relatively freely. It also returns quickly to a straight orientation, allowing maximum signal return6,10,11. We also demonstrate the use of an off-the-shelf transceiver (see &#39;Obtaining signals&#39; section below) marketed for backcountry rescue7,9,14. Together, inexpensive tags and off-the-shelf transceivers make this insect-tracking technique highly accessible to entomologists studying insect behavior and ecology. In this article, we&#160;touch&#160;on making&#160;tags, attaching tags to insects, tracking these tagged insects, and provide&#160;some representative tracking results.

<table><tbody><tr><td>Large assembly jig</td><td></td><td>https://www.thingiverse.com/thing:6784793</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Large wire jig</td><td></td><td>https://www.thingiverse.com/thing:6784784</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Nitinol Wire (Small)</td><td>Fort Wayne Metals (Fort Wayne, IN, USA)</td><td>17822174</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>RECCO R9 Handheld Detector</td><td>RECCO AB (Lidingo&lt;sup&gt;&amp;middot;&amp;middot;&lt;/sup&gt;, Sweden)</td><td></td><td>Frequencies of operation: Europe, 866.9 MHz (transmitting),1733.8 MHz (receiving); US, 902.85 MHz (transmitting), 1805.7 MHz (receiving)</td></tr><tr><td>RF Schottky Diode (Small)</td><td>MACOM Technology Solutions (Lowell, MA, USA)</td><td>MA4E2501L-1290</td><td>Puchased via Richardson RFPD</td></tr><tr><td>Schottky Diode (Large)</td><td>RECCO AB (Lidingo&lt;sup&gt;&amp;middot;&amp;middot;&lt;/sup&gt;, Sweden)</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Silver Conductive Epoxy Adhesive</td><td>MG Chemicals</td><td>12642-14&amp;nbsp; (Amazon: 8331D)</td><td>Puchased via Amazon</td></tr><tr><td>Small assembly jig</td><td></td><td>https://www.thingiverse.com/thing:6784791</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Small wire jig</td><td></td><td>https://www.thingiverse.com/thing:6784775</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Super-Elastic Nitinol Wire (Large)</td><td>McMaster-Carr (Brookpark, Ohio, USA)</td><td>8320K31</td><td>0.003&quot; Diameter x 30 Feet Long</td></tr><tr><td>Ted Pella Inc Silver Conductive Epoxy</td><td>Thermo Fisher Scientific (Waltham, MA, USA)</td><td>NC9959045</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>UV Adhesive</td><td>Bondic (Niagara Falls, NY, USA)</td><td></td><td>Purchased via Amazon and/or Bondic online (notaglue.com)</td></tr></tbody></table>

harmonic radar tags for insect tracking: lightweight, low-cost, and accessible

Harmonic Radar Tags for Insect Tracking: Lightweight, Low-cost, and Accessible

Using tracking devices to follow animal movements has long been a standard approach for studying the behavior and ecology of vertebrates. Until relatively recently, these tracking methods have been unavailable to entomologists due to the prohibitively large size and mass of the tracking devices that must be attached. Technologies applied to insect tracking include radio telemetry, Bluetooth, RFID, and harmonic radar. Among these, radio telemetry is the most used method to track larger insects. It offers a longer detection range and unique signals for each tracked insect but requires expensive tags that have limited shelf and field life and are heavy, generally at least 150 milligrams. By contrast, harmonic radar tags, first used in 1986, are lighter by at least an order of magnitude, inexpensive, and have detection ranges that allow field tracking of many smaller insects. Here, we demonstrate the use of an off-the-shelf transceiver marketed for backcountry rescue. Together, inexpensive tags and off-the-shelf transceivers make this insect-tracking technique highly accessible to entomologists studying insect behavior and ecology. In this article, we will touch on creating tags, attaching tags to insects, tracking these tagged insects, and present&#160;some representative tracking results.

Detection range and tag size are probably the two most important features of insect tracking tags. Here, we present representative results for the maximum detection range of the large and small tags fabricated in this article. Maximum detection ranges were determined by securing the tags longitudinally to a thick wooden dowel (~1.5 m) with double-sided tape. The maximum distance that tag signals could be detected was then determined by moving the transceiver away from the tag until no signal was audible. Ten tags of each size were tested in an open field. The maximum detection distance for the larger tags is roughly four times that of the smaller tags (Table 1). Misalignment of the tag and transceiver, along with vegetation interference, often reduces the detection range under field conditions. In our experience, we assume a detection distance of ~10 m for larger tags and ~5 m for small tags when working in tree field crops.
Finally, we would like to share the results from a representative tracking study with Queensland longhorn beetle (QLB). The aim of this study was to investigate the movement ecology of QLB, as little is known about where adult beetles spend time in the environment. As the beetles are cryptic, it is quite difficult to locate them in the environment without a tracking technique such as HR. This study was conducted in a stand of kukui trees (Aleurites moluccana) on the Big Island of Hawaii. Multiple beetles were tagged and released during the course of this study. Beetles were then located using the tracking techniques demonstrated earlier in this article. An example of the path taken by one beetle over the course of 10 days can be seen in Figure 4. Note that the beetle was tracked to multiple locations, including high in kukui trees and to dead leaves. This was an important finding of this study. As QLB can be highly cryptic, farmers have often asked about where the beetles were "hiding" around the trees. By tracking individual QLB, we were able to determine that beetles were often concealed in dry leaves, making them difficult to detect. This study offers important new insights into where QLB adults are spending time both during the day and movement during the night.
<img alt="Insect tracking systems comparison: radio telemetry, harmonic radar, RFID; range, cost, mass details." class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/67812/67812fig01.jpg" data-altupdatedat="1788304762000" data-alt="Figure 1"> 
Figure 1: Comparison of devices commonly used to track insects. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/67812/67812fig01large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Transceiver radar diagram; outgoing and return signal; echolocation process; insect detection." class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/67812/67812fig02.jpg" data-altupdatedat="1788304762000" data-alt="Figure 2"> 
Figure 2: Harmonic radar works by sending a signal at one frequency (blue) and then receiving the returned (frequency doubled) signal (red). <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/67812/67812fig02large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Transceiver alignment diagram, max signal with tag aligned, weak signal when misaligned." class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/67812/67812fig03.jpg" data-altupdatedat="1788304762000" data-alt="Figure 3"> 
Figure 3: Signal strength is related to the orientation of the tag and transceiver. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/67812/67812fig03large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Tree canopy diagram showing labeled parts like leaves, branches, and trunks in a park setting." class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/67812/67812fig04.jpg" data-altupdatedat="1788304762000" data-alt="Figure 4"> 
Figure 4: Representative results from tracking a single Queensland longhorn beetle in kukui trees. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/67812/67812fig04large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Large tags</td>
			<td>Small tags</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>64 ± 1 m</td>
			<td>12 ± 1 m</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>
Table 1: Maximum detection distances (mean ± SE, m) for insect harmonic radar tags (N = 10).

This protocol presents the methods for creating, attaching, and tracking harmonic radar tags for insects.

Using tracking devices to follow animal movements has long been a standard approach for studying the behavior and ecology of vertebrates. Until relatively ...

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We describe a protocol for using insect antennae in the form of electroantennograms (EAGs) on autonomous robots. Our experimental design allows stable recordings within a day and resolves individual odor patches up to 10 Hz. The efficiency of EAG sensors for olfactory searches is demonstrated in driving a robot toward an odor source.

Using Insect Electroantennogram Sensors on Autonomous Robots for Olfactory Searches

This video describes Radio-Frequency Identification (RFID) and motion-sensitive video recording methods to monitor choice behavior by bumblebees.

Radio Frequency Identification and Motion-sensitive Video Efficiently Automate Recording of Unrewarded Choice Behavior by Bumblebees

We proposed a system that uses inexpensive, noninvasive pseudo-acoustic optical sensors to automatically and accurately detect, count, and classify flying insects based on their flying sound.

Flying Insect Detection and Classification with Inexpensive Sensors

Flight in insects is influenced by a number of factors and the propensity to disperse is an important variable in understanding insect ecology and biological control strategies. We describe the construction and use of a simple, relatively inexpensive, and flexible flight mill for measuring parameters of tethered flight in insects.

A Simple Flight Mill for the Study of Tethered Flight in Insects

This protocol describes the process of constructing an insect-machine hybrid system and carrying out wireless electrical stimulation of the flight muscles required to control the turning motion of a flying insect.

Insect-machine Hybrid System: Remote Radio Control of a Freely Flying Beetle (Mercynorrhina torquata)

This protocol describes steps for using the novel software, SwarmSight, for frame-by-frame tracking of insect antenna and proboscis positions from conventional web camera videos using conventional computers. The free, open-source software processes frames about 120 times faster than humans and performs at better than human accuracy.

SwarmSight: Real-time Tracking of Insect Antenna Movements and Proboscis Extension Reflex Using a Common Preparation and Conventional Hardware

Here we present a Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) system based on a ground-coupled, densely populated antenna array for monitoring the dynamic process of subsurface water infiltration. A time-lapse radar image of the infiltration process allowed estimating the depth of the wetting front during the course of the infiltration process.

Tracking Infiltration Front Depth Using Time-lapse Multi-offset Gathers Collected with Array Antenna Ground Penetrating Radar

Measurement of insect emergence patterns requires precision. Existing systems are only semi-automated and sample size is limited. We addressed these issues by designing a system using microcontrollers to precisely measure the time of emergence of large numbers of emerging insects.

A Precise and Autonomous System for the Detection of Insect Emergence Patterns

This study introduces experimental protocols for a bio-hybrid odor-detecting drone based on silkmoth antennae. The operation of an experimental electroantennogram device with silkmoth antennae is presented, in addition to the structure of a bio-hybrid drone designed for odor source localization using the spiral-surge algorithm.

Electroantennography-based Bio-hybrid Odor-detecting Drone using Silkmoth Antennae for Odor Source Localization

To study the impacts of artificial light at night (ALAN) on nocturnal flying insects, sampling needs to be confined to nighttime. The protocol describes a low-cost automated flight intercept trap that allows researchers to sample at user-defined periods with increased replication.

Low-Cost Automated Flight Intercept Trap for the Temporal Sub-Sampling of Flying Insects Attracted to Artificial Light at Night

Learn to fabricate lightweight harmonic radar tags using Schottky diodes and nitinol wire for tracking small insects. This accessible method enables entomologists to study insect behavior and ecology in field conditions.

Harmonic Radar Tags for Insect Tracking: Lightweight, Low-cost, and Accessible

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