Name: glycolysis: atp and nadh formation
Uploaded: 2019-03-11T09:21:11.000Z
Duration: 1 min 28 s
Channel: JoVE

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LS.Bio.3.3

Energy-releasing Steps of Glycolysis

في النصف الثاني من تحلل الجلوكوز،يتأكسد جزيئي غلسرالديهايد-3 الفوسفات G3P،في التفاعل المحفز بإنزيم غلسرالديهايد فوسفات ديهيدروجينيز. وترتبط مجموعة الفوسفات بالسكر غير المستقر،مكونة 1, 3 ثنائي فوسفات الغلسرالديهايد. ونتيجة لذلك،يُطلق إلكترونان ذوي طاقة عالية واثنين من البروتونات ويلتقطها الحامل وهو نيكوتيناميد الأدينين ثنائي النوكليوتيدات الزائد.مكونا جزيئين من NADH وأيوني هيدروجين. ثم ينقل إنزيم كيناز فسفوغلسرات مجموعة الفوسفات من جزيئات 1،3-ثنائي فسفوغلسرات إلى أدينوزين ثنائي الفوسفات،مكونا جزيئين من ATP و 3 فسفوغلسرات. ثم يحول إنزيم فسفوغليسيرات موتاز هذا الجزيء إلى مصاوغه 2-فوفوغليسريت والذي يسمح لإنزيم إينوليز بإطلاق جزيء الماء وتكوين هيكل جديد مزدوج الروابط،من بيروفات الإينول الفوسفاتية PEP.بمساعدة إنزيم بيروفات كينيز،وتزال مجموعات الفوسفات من PEP وتتصل ب ADP مكونة جزيئين آخرين من ATP،جنبا إلى جنب مع الناتج النهائي وهو البيروفات. وعند نهاية عملية تحلل الجلوكوز،ينتج جزيئي ATP جنبا إلى جنب مع جزيئي NADH وجزيئي بيروفات. ويمكن تكسير البيروفات أكثر،بواسطة الأوكسجين الموجود.بينما يستطيع NADH تمرير إلكتروناته إلى السلسلة الناقلة للإلكترونات لتجديد NAD زائد.

خطوات تحلل الجلوكوز التي تطلق الطاقة

في حين أن المرحلة الأولى من تحلل الجلوكوز تستهلك الطاقة لتحويل الجلوكوز إلى ٣-جليسيرالديهيد فوسفات (G3P) ، فإن المرحلة الثانية تنتج الطاقة. يتم إطلاق الطاقة عبر سلسلة من التفاعلات التي تحول ٣_جليسيرالديهيد فوسفات إلى بيروفات. مرحلة إطلاق الطاقة ، الخطوات ٦-١٠ من تحلل السكر ، تحدث مرتين ، مرة واحدة لكل من السكريات المكونة من ٣ كربون والتي يتم إنتاجها خلال الخطوات ١-٥.

الخطوة الأولى لإطلاق الطاقة _ تعتبر الخطوة السادسة من تحلل السكر بشكل عام _ وتتكون من حدثين متزامنين: الأكسدة والفسفرة لـ ٣-جليسيرالديهيد فوسفات. يزيل حامل الإلكترون NAD+ هيدروجيناً واحداً من ٣-جليسيرالديهيد فوسفات ، مما يؤدي إلى أكسدة السكر ثلاثي الكربون وتحويل (اختزال) NAD+ لتكوين NADH و H+. يتم استخدام الطاقة المنبعثة لفسفرة ٣-جليسيرالديهيد فوسفات ، وتحويلها إلى ١ ، ٣-بيسفوسفوجليسيرات.

في الخطوة التالية ، ١ ، ٣-بيسفوسفوجليسيرات يحول أدينوسين ثنائي الفوسفات إلى أدينوسين ثلاثي الفوسفات عن طريق التبرع بمجموعة فوسفات ، و بالتالي تصبح ٣-فوسفوجليسريت. ثم يتم تحويل ٣-فوسفوجليسريت إلى ايزومر ، ٢-فوسفوغليسريت.

بعد ذلك ، يفقد ٢-فوسفوغليسريت جزيء ماء ، ليصبح الجزيء غير المستقر ٢-فسفوينولبيروفيت ، أو (PEP). ٢-فسفوينولبيروفيت يفقد بسهولة مجموعة الفوسفات إلى أدينوسين ثنائي الفوسفات ، و تحويلها إلى جزيء أدينوسين ثلاثي الفوسفات و تصبح بيروفات في هذه العملية.

تطلق مرحلة إطلاق الطاقة جزيئين من أدينوسين ثلاثي الفوسفات وجزيء واحد من NADH لكل سكر تم تحويله. لأنه يحدث مرتين _ لكل سكر ذو ٣-كربون منتج في المرحلة التي تتطلب الطاقة من تحلل السكر _ يتم إطلاق أربعة جزيئات أدينوسين ثلاثي الفوسفات واثنين من جزيئات NADH. وبالتالي ، بالنسبة لكل جزيء جلوكوز ، ينتج عن تحلل السكر صافي إنتاج اثنين من جزيئات أدينوسين ثلاثي الفوسفات (تنتج ٤ ناقص ٢ ، تستخدم خلال المرحلة التي تتطلب الطاقة) وجزيئين من (NADH).

ينتج تحلل السكر جزيئين من ٣-كربون بيروفات من جزيء جلوكوز ٦-كربون. في وجود الأكسجين ، يمكن تقسيم البيروفات إلى ثاني أكسيد الكربون في دورة كريبس ، وإطلاق العديد من جزيئات أدينوسين ثلاثي الفوسفات. يتكدس NADH في الخلية ، حيث يمكن تحويله مرة أخرى إلى NAD+ واستخدامه لمزيد من تحلل السكر.

ينقسم تحلل السكر إلى مرحلتين بناء على ما إذا كانت الطاقة مستخدمة أو مطلقة. بينما تستهلك المرحلة الأولى ATP ، تنتج المرحلة الثانية ...

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glycolysis: atp and nadh formation

Glycolysis produces ATP and NADH during its energy-releasing phase. These reactions are the last steps of glycolysis and convert glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate, or G3P, into pyruvate. The phase is often described as steps 6 to 10, and it happens twice because two 3-carbon sugars are made earlier in glycolysis.

The sixth step begins with two linked events. G3P is oxidized, which means it loses hydrogen, and it is phosphorylated, which means a phosphate group is added. NAD+ acts as the electron carrier and removes one hydrogen atom from G3P, forming NADH and H+. The energy released in this step helps turn G3P into 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate.

Next, 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate loses a phosphate group and becomes 3-phosphoglycerate. That phosphate group is transferred to ADP, which makes ATP. Then 3-phosphoglycerate changes into its isomer, 2-phosphoglycerate. After that, 2-phosphoglycerate loses water and becomes the unstable compound 2-phosphoenolpyruvate, or PEP.

PEP quickly loses its phosphate group to ADP. This creates a second ATP molecule and leaves pyruvate. For each converted 3-carbon sugar, the energy-releasing phase makes two ATP molecules and one NADH molecule. Because the phase runs twice, glycolysis produces four ATP molecules and two NADH molecules in this stage.

Overall, one glucose molecule yields two pyruvate molecules. Glycolysis has a net gain of two ATP molecules because four ATP are produced and two ATP are used in the energy-requiring phase. It also leaves two NADH molecules in the cell. In the presence of oxygen, pyruvate can continue into the Krebs cycle, where it is broken down into carbon dioxide and more ATP is released. NADH can later be converted back into NAD+ so glycolysis can continue.

Glycolysis: ATP and NADH Formation

what is glycolysis?

Glycolysis: How Cells Break Down Glucose

Glycolysis is the first stage of cellular respiration and a key way cells break down glucose to make energy. Cellular respiration converts food energy from macromolecules into ATP, the cell’s main energy currency. Glycolysis also creates intermediate molecules that can feed into other pathways. In this pathway, one six-carbon sugar such as glucose is split into two three-carbon molecules, including pyruvate. The process produces a net gain of two ATP molecules, since four ATP are made and two...

energy-requiring steps of glycolysis

Glycolysis: Glucose Trapping and Splitting

Glycolysis begins in the cytosol, where glucose is prepared for use as energy. This process has two phases: an energy-requiring phase and an energy-releasing phase. The first phase changes glucose into a more reactive, unstable form before it can move into later steps. In the first step, glucose is phosphorylated, which means a phosphate group is added from ATP. This produces glucose 6-phosphate. The added phosphate is negatively charged, so it cannot cross the hydrophobic cell membrane. As a...

energy-releasing steps of glycolysis

Glycolysis produces ATP and NADH during its energy-releasing phase. These reactions are the last steps of glycolysis and convert glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate, or G3P, into pyruvate. The phase is often described as steps 6 to 10, and it happens twice because two 3-carbon sugars are made earlier in glycolysis. The sixth step begins with two linked events. G3P is oxidized, which means it loses hydrogen, and it is phosphorylated, which means a phosphate group is added. NAD+ acts as the electron...

pyruvate oxidation

How Pyruvate Becomes Acetyl CoA

Pyruvate is prepared for the next stage of cellular respiration inside the mitochondria. After glycolysis, the charged pyruvate molecules enter the mitochondria by active transport. There, they go through three enzymatic reactions so the energy stored in pyruvate can be used by the cell. First, pyruvate dehydrogenase removes the carboxyl group from pyruvate. This step releases carbon dioxide. Next, the stripped molecule is oxidized, and the electrons are picked up by NAD+ to make NADH. The...

the citric acid cycle

Citric Acid Cycle Energy and Products

The citric acid cycle is a key energy-making pathway in cells. It is also called the Krebs cycle or the TCA cycle. In eukaryotic cells, it takes place in the matrix of mitochondria. In prokaryotic cells, it occurs in the cytoplasm. The cycle starts with acetyl CoA, which enters the pathway after pyruvate oxidation. That earlier step makes two acetyl CoA molecules per glucose molecule. For that reason, the citric acid cycle runs twice for each glucose molecule. The pathway includes eight...

electron transport chains

ATP Production by the Electron Transport Chain

ATP production in the electron transport chain is the final stage of cellular respiration. This stage is part of oxidative phosphorylation, which has two steps: the electron transport chain and chemiosmosis. In eukaryotic cells, the electron transport chain sits in the inner mitochondrial membrane. Its main job is to build a proton gradient. That gradient is then used during chemiosmosis to make ATP. The process also regenerates the electron carriers NAD+ and FAD, which are needed again in...

chemiosmosis

ATP Production by Chemiosmosis

ATP production by chemiosmosis is part of oxidative phosphorylation, the efficient stage of cellular respiration that makes most of the cell’s ATP. Oxidative phosphorylation includes two linked processes: the electron transport chain and chemiosmosis. Together, they help generate adenosine triphosphate, or ATP, the main energy molecule used by cells. The electron transport chain is a series of protein complexes in the inner mitochondrial membrane. These complexes pass electrons through a set...

electron carriers

Electron Carriers in Cellular Respiration

Electron carriers help move electrons through cellular respiration. They act like shuttles that can accept electrons, which means they are reduced, or give electrons away, which means they are oxidized. This changing between oxidized and reduced forms is essential for energy production. As glucose breaks down into carbon dioxide and water, it loses electrons at several stages. Electron carriers pick up those electrons and store them temporarily. They then release the electrons into the...

fermentation

Fermentation Pathways Without Oxygen

Fermentation is a metabolic pathway that lets cells make energy without oxygen. It begins after glucose is split into two pyruvate molecules during glycolysis. Glycolysis is the same first step used in aerobic respiration. When oxygen is unavailable, pyruvate does not enter aerobic respiration. Instead, cells convert pyruvate into other organic molecules through pathways that depend on the organism. A key purpose of fermentation is to regenerate NAD+ from NADH so glycolysis can keep running. <br...

dietary connections

How Food Becomes ATP

Food becomes ATP through connected steps in cellular respiration. Carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids all feed into these pathways. The body can use foods such as apples, cheese, and guacamole as sources of energy. Carbohydrate digestion starts with enzymes that break complex carbohydrates into simple sugars. Glucose can enter glycolysis directly. Fructose and galactose must first be converted into sugars that are intermediates of the glycolytic pathway. Proteins are digested into amino acids.

introduction to cellular respiration

Cellular Respiration: ATP Production Steps

Cellular respiration is the process cells use to turn energy from food into ATP. ATP, or adenosine triphosphate, stores energy in chemical bonds that can be released quickly when cells need it. Much of the energy released during respiration becomes heat, but some of it is captured to make ATP. This process depends on oxidation-reduction, or redox, reactions. In these reactions, oxidation means electron loss and reduction means electron gain. The electron carriers NAD+ and FAD, along with their...

products of the citric acid cycle

Citric Acid Cycle Output in Cellular Respiration

The citric acid cycle is a key stage of aerobic respiration in cells. It is also called the Krebs cycle or the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle. Plants and animals use this oxygen-requiring pathway as part of cellular respiration. This cycle happens after glycolysis and pyruvate oxidation. Glycolysis makes two pyruvate molecules from each glucose molecule. During pyruvate oxidation, each pyruvate becomes acetyl-CoA, which is the input for the citric acid cycle. That means one glucose molecule...

outcomes of glycolysis

Glycolysis Products in Cellular Respiration

Glycolysis is the first step of cellular respiration and breaks glucose into smaller molecules. Cells use this process to pull energy from glucose over a series of chemical reactions. Cellular respiration can happen with oxygen or without oxygen. In both aerobic and anaerobic cellular respiration, glycolysis makes a net gain of two pyruvate molecules, two NADH molecules, and two ATP molecules. Four ATP molecules are produced, but two ATP molecules are used earlier in the pathway. Glycolysis...

atp yield

How Cellular Respiration Makes ATP

Cellular respiration makes ATP from glucose in several stages. The process usually produces 30 to 32 ATP per glucose molecule. Most of that ATP comes from oxidative phosphorylation and the electron transport chain, while 4 ATP are made earlier, with 2 from glycolysis and 2 from the citric acid cycle. The electron transport chain, or ETC, sits in the inner mitochondrial membrane. It has four main protein complexes and ATP synthase, the enzyme that makes ATP. NADH and FADH2 deliver electrons to...

key terms and concepts

Track the energy-releasing steps of glycolysis and see how G3P becomes pyruvate while ATP and NADH are produced in the final reactions.

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Glycolysis: ATP and NADH Formation

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